GLASS INDUSTRIES

silica or quartz - heated up to 1650degC -melts to a colorless liquid which on cooling gives glass
TYPES OF GLASSES
• Soda-lime or soft glasses
• Potash-lime or hard glasses
• Lead glass or Flint glass
• Borosilicate glass or Pyrex glass or Jena glass
• 96% Silica glass
• Alumino-silicate glass
• Safety glass
• Optical or Crookes glasses
• Polycrystalline glass or Pyroceram
• Toughened glass
• Insulating glass
• Wired glass
• Laminated glass
• Glass wool
• Photosensitive Glass
• Photochromic glass
• Fiber glass
• 99.5% silica glass or Vitreosil
• Soda-lime or soft glasses
– raw materials
• silica (sand), calcium carbonate and soda ash.
• approximate composition is Na2O.CaO.6SiO2.
• 90% of all glasses produced belong to soda lime glass.
• low cost, low melting point soda-lime glass has
resistant to de-vitrification and to water.
• poor resistance to common reagents like acids.
• Uses: window glass, electric bulbs, plate glass, bottles, jars,
building blocks and cheaper tablewares,
• Potash-lime or hard glasses
– Silica (sand), calcium carbonate and potassium
carbonate
– approximate composition is K2O.CaO.6SiO2.
– possess high melting point, fuse with difficulty and
have good resistance to acids, alkalis and other
solvents compare to ordinary glasses.
• Uses: chemical apparatus, combustion tubes, etc.,
 Lead glass or Flint glass
• lead oxide is fused with silica.
• 80% of lead oxide is incorporated for dense optical glasses.
• In addition, K2O is used instead of sodium oxide.
• approximate composition is K2O.PbO.6SiO2.
• has a lower softening temperature and higher refractive index than soda
glass.
• has excellent electrical properties. lustrous and possesses high specific
gravity
Uses: - table wares, optical lenses, neon sign tubing, cathode ray tubes,
electrical insulators.
- shields to protect personnel from X-rays and gamma rays in medical
and atomic energy fields
 Glass manufacture
• RAW MATERIAL
– Sand, soda ash, calcium oxide, fled spar, borax,
magnesia, zinc, alumina, lead oxide, manganese
oxide, selenium metal, broken glass, fluxes,
colouring agent, reducing agent, oxidizing agent
etc.

Oxide should satisfy following conditions

• Every oxygen atom must be attached with 2-4 cations
e.g. SiO2, B2O3, GeO2, P2O5 and As2O5
• The oxygen polyhedral must share the corner
position and not the edge.
• At least three corners of each tetrahedron must be
share.
The oxides used for glass manufacture are classified
into following groups
• a) Network former
• b) Network modifier
• c) Intermediate glass formers
• d) Oxidizing agent
• e) Refining agent
• f) Cullet
• g) Colouring agent
The manufacturing process of glass consisting
of the following four steps

1.Melting the charge

2. Fabrication of the article
3. Annealing the article formed
4. Finishing treatments
 Melting of the charge
Two types furnaces are used for glass melting
• a) Pot furnace
• b) Tank furnace

Pot furnace
• melted inside the combustion chambers of the furnace
fired directly with coal (used in bangle industry) or
producer gas (used tableware manufacture).
• Pot furnaces are generally used for small scale melting
and fabrication by hand, for the production of glass
bangles, table wares, lamp wares, thermos-flask etc.
 Fabrication of an article
different ways fabrication
• a) Blowing
• b) Casting
• c) Drawing
• d) Pressing
• e) Rolling
• f) Spinning
a) Blowing
• Blow pipe of diameter is about 12mm and its length about
180cm is used for blowing purpose
b) Casting
• The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to
cool down slowly, large pieces of glass of simple design can
be prepared by this method. It is also adopted to prepared
mirrors and lenses.
C) Drawing
• an iron bar is dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass.
Then it is lifted up horizontally and in doing so, it catches up
a sheet of molten glass. The sheet is then allowed pass over
a large rotating roller. The roller helps the molten glass to
spread in the sheet.
d) Pressing
• molten glass is pressed into moulds. pressure may be
applied by hand or by mechanical means. This process is
adopted for ornament article and hollow glass articles
e) Rolling
two methods of rolling.
• the molten mass of glass is passes between heavy iron
rollers and flat glass plate of uniform thickness is
obtained.
• the molten mass of glass is poured on a flat iron casting
table and it is then turned flat wi
f) Spinning
• The molten glass is spun at high speed to a very fine
size.
– has tensile strength equal to that of mild steel.
– does not fade, decay or shrink.
– not attached by acids, fire and vermin.
– very soft and flexible.
– used for providing insulation against electricity and sound.
th the help of a heavy iron roller.
g) Annealing
• slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as
annealing of glass.
• glass articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial layer
of glass cools down first, as glass is a bad conductor of heat. The
inter portion remains comparatively hot and it is, therefore in a
state of strain. Hence such glass article breaks to pieces under very
slight shocks or disturbances
Methods of annealing
• a) Flue Treatment
• b) Oven treatment
 Finishing treatments

• a) Bending
• b) Cutting
• c) Opaque making
• d) Silvering
 CEMENT MANUFACTURE
involves the following steps
• 1. Mixing of raw material
• 2. Burning
• 3. Grinding
• 4. Storage and packaging
 1. Mixing of raw material

Mixing can be done by any one of the following

two processes
• (a) Dry process
• (b) Wet process
Dry Process
• Lime stone or chalk and clay are
crushed into gyratory crusher to get
2-5 cm
• size pieces. Crushed material is
ground to get fine particle into ball
mill or tube mill.
• Each material after screening stored
in a separate hopper. The powder is
mixed in
• require proportions to get dry raw
mix which is stored in silos (storage
tank) and kept
• ready to be fed into the rotary kiln.
Raw materials are mixed in required
proportions
• so that average composition of the
final product is maintained properly
Wet process
• Raw materials are crushed, powdered and
stored in silos. The clay is washed
• with water in wash mills to remove
adhering organic matter. The washed clay
is
• stored separately. Powdered lime stone
and wet clay are allowed to flow in
channel
• and transfer to grinding mills where they
are intimately mixed and paste is formed
• known as slurry. Grinding may be done
either in ball mill or tube mill or both.
• Thenslurry is led to correcting basin where
chemical composition may be adjusted.
• The slurry contains 38-40% water stored
in storage tank and kept ready for feeding
to a rotary kiln.
Comparison of dry process and wet
process
 2. Burning
• Burning is carried out in rotary kiln rotating at 1-2 rpm.
• The raw mix or corrected slurry is injected into the kiln
from its upper end. Burning fuel like powdered coal or oil or
hot gases are forced through the lower end of the kiln so
long hot flame is produced.
• Due to inclined position and slow rotation of the kiln, the
material charged from upper end is moving towards lower
end (hottest zone) at a speed of 15meter/hour. As gradually
descends the temperature is rises.
• In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is
evaporated at 400C temperature, so it is known as drying
zone.
• In the central part (calcination zone),
temperature is around 1000degC,
• decomposition of lime stone takes place. After
escapes of CO2, the remaining material in the
forms small lumps called nodule.
• The lower part (clinkering zone)
have temperature in between
1500-1700C
• lime and clay are reacts to
yielding calcium aluminates
and calcium silicates.
• This aluminates and silicates of
calcium fuse to gather to form
small and hard stones are
known as clinkers.
• The size of the clinker is varies
from 5-10mm
• clinkers are cooled down by air
admitting counter current
direction at the base of rotary
kiln.
• Resulting hot air is used for
burning powdered coal or oil
and cooled clinkers are
• collected in small trolleys or in
small rotary kiln.
3. Grinding
• Cooled clinkers are ground to fine
powder in ball mill or tube mill. 2-
3%
• powdered gypsum is added as
retarding agent during final
grinding. So that, resulting
cement does not settle quickly,
when comes in contact with
water.
• After initial set, cement - water
paste becomes stiff, but gypsum
retards the dissolution of tri-
calcium aluminates by forming
tricalcium sulfoaluminate which
is insoluble and prevents too
early further reactions of setting
and hardening.
 SUGAR MANUFACTURE
• Sugar contains

– 70 % water, 14 % fibre, 13.3 % saccharose (about 10-15 % sucrose) and 2.7 %

impurities.

– The yield of sugar depends mostly on the quality of cane and the efficiency of the

extraction of juice crushing, milling and squeezing of juice through a series of pressure

mills containing grooved walls

– Weak juice and make up water is added as extractant before squeezing to maximize juice

yield.

– After crushing and extraction of juice, baggase is left as residue which is about

33.3percent of the total cane crushed.

– Bagasse is used as fuel for boilers.

– However about 10percent of bagasse is available surplus which is used for paper making

it can be also used for manufacture of alcohol.

 PROCESS STEPS
• Purification of juice - by addition of calcium phosphate followed by addition of lime to precipitate
the impurities in the form of colloid.

• This followed by bubbling of SO2 for maximum flocculation of impurities. SO2 also acts as a
bleaching agent.

• Further the flocculation of the impurities is achieved in the continuous settler. Double carbonation
using CO2 and double sulphitation using SO2 is used.

• The Clarified solution goes to evaporator and the underflow of clarifier goes to rotary filter for
removal of the impurities as cake.

• filtrate containing sugar from the rotary filter is recycled.

• Clarified juice is concentrated in the multiple effect evaporator to about 40 percent.

• The concentrated syrup is again bleached by passing SO2 through it.

• Concentrated sugar solution is then sent to vacuum pan where thickened syrup is boiled three to four
times and then sent to crystallizer where separation of sugar crystal takes place.

• It is sent to high speed basket centrifuges for separation of sugar crystal

• EXTRACTION OF JUICE: This involves washing, shredding and
extraction of juice

• JUICE PURIFICATION: The extracted juice is purified using lime and

CO2 for removing nonsugar substance from the Juice.

• EVAPORATION OF JUICE: Evaporation of the purified juice from

15percent sugar content to 65-70percent sugar content

• CRYSTALLISATION: Crystallization of concentrated sugar solution to

sugar crystal.

• Molasses are left behind after crystallization which is use for production of
alcohol.

• REFINING OF THE RAW SUGAR: The raw sugar is dissolved, filters and
crystallized again to get high grade refined sugar.