Mr.M.

Vinoth Kumar Kannan, Teaching Fellow

/Mechanical, University V.O.C. College of Engineering.
UNIT- II
 Hydraulic and Energy Gradient
 The hydraulic grade line, or the hydraulic gradient, in open
flow is the water surface, and in pipe flow it connects the
elevations to which the water would rise in giezometer tubes
along the pipe.
 The energy gradient is at a distance equal to the velocity head
above the hydraulic gradient.
 In both open and pipe flow the fall of the energy gradient for
a given length of channel or pipe represents the loss of energy
by friction.
 When considered together, the hydraulic gradient and the
energy gradient reflect not only the loss of energy by friction,
but also the conversions between potential and kinetic
energy.
In the majority of cases the end objective of hydraulic
computations relating to flow in open channels is to determine
the curve of the water surface.
 These problems involve three general relationships between
the hydraulic gradient and the energy gradient.
 For uniform flow the hydraulic gradient and the energy
gradient are parallel and the hydraulic gradient becomes an
adequate basis for the determination of friction loss, since no
conversion between kinetic and potential energy is involved.
 In accelerated flow the hydraulic gradient is steeper than the
energy gradient, and in retarded flow the energy gradient is
steeper than the hydraulic gradient.
An adequate analysis of flow under these conditions cannot
be made without consideration of both the energy gradient and
the hydraulic gradient.
 INTRODUCTION TO LAMINAR AND
TURBULENT FLOW
• The turbulent flow occurs when the fluid is
flowing fast and the laminar flow occurs when
the fluid it is flowing slowly.
• In laminar flow the motion of the particles of
fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in
straight lines parallel to the pipe walls.
• We don not know whether it is fast or slow, at
what speed does the flow patternetc.,
• The phenomenon was first investigated in the
1880s by Osbourne Reynolds in an experiment
which has become a classic in fluid mechanics.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER:
• Helps predict the change in flow type.
• Reynolds number, Re: ρud/ µ
where ρ = density,
u = mean velocity,
d = diameter and
µ = viscosity
• Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
LAMINAR FLOW:
 Re < 2000
 'low' velocity
 Dye does not mix with water
 Fluid particles move in straight lines
 Simple mathematical analysis possible
Rare in practice in water systems.
EXAMPLES OF LAMINAR FLOW:
Flow past tiny bodies
Underground flow
Movement of blood in arteries of a human
body
Flow of oil in measuring instruments
Rise of water in plants
TRANSITIONAL FLOW:
2000 > Re < 4000

 'medium' velocity

 Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly.

TURBULENT FLOW:
 Re > 4000
 'high' velocity
 Dye mixes rapidly and completely
 Particle paths completely irregular
 Average motion is in the direction of the flow
 Cannot be seen by the naked eye
 Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must
use laser.
 Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental
measures are used.
 Most common type of flow.
CRITICAL VELOCITY:
• The velocity at which the flow changes from
the laminar to turbulent for the case of given
fluid at a given temperature & given pipe is
known as critical velocity.

• Determines the flow is either laminar or

turbulent.
Flow through circular pipes – Hagen
Poiseuille’s equation:
• Let us consider two dimensional, steady, incompressible,
Newtonian, fully developed, laminar flow between two
horizontal plates.
• A small element of thickness dy, length dx and unit width is
considered.
• To describe the flow through circular pipes the following
aspects are important:
1.SHEAR STRESS distribution
2.VELOCITY distribution
3.Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity
4.Difference of pressure head for a given length
of parallel plates.
BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPTS:
The boundary layer is a thin layer adjacent to the solid
surface in which the viscous effects are important.
Although the thickness of the boundary layer is very
thin, one cannot neglect it.
Therefore it is important to analyze the flow within the
boundary layer in details.
The velocity close to the solid surface will be same as
the velocity of solid due to no-slip boundary condition.
The velocity away from the surface will be higher and
therefore, there exists a velocity gradient.
The velocity gradient in a direction normal to the
surface is large compared to stream wise direction.
To describe the concept of boundary layer,
consider flow over a thin, smooth flat plate as
shown in figure.
The fluid just before encountering with the plate
is having a uniform velocity.
The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity
on the stationary boundary to free – stream
velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal to
the boundary.
This variation of velocity from zero to free –
stream velocity in the direction normal to the
boundary takes place in a narrow region in the
vicinity of solid boundary layer.
The theory dealing with boundary layer flows is
called boundary layer theory.
The flow of fluid may be divided into two regions:
1. A very thin layer of the fluid called the
boundary layer in the immediate neighborhood of
solid boundary
Velocity gradient du/dy exists
τ = µ(du/dy)
2.Fluid outside the boundary layer
Velocity = free stream velocity
no variation of velocity & thence
du/dy = 0 ⇒ z = 0.
BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS:
The boundary layer thickness is defined as the
distance away from the solid surface, where the
local velocity is 99% of the free stream velocity
(i.e. =0.99U∞).
At the initial stage, near the surface of the
leading edge of the plate, the thickness of
boundary layer is small and the flow in the
boundary layer is laminar though the main
stream flow is turbulent.
So the layer is said to be LAMINAR BOUNDARY
LAYER.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
THICKNESS:
Velocity in boundary layer varies from zero to main stream
velocity.
Therefore, the boundary layer thickness is defined in such
a way that the distance from the boundary (in y direction)
where the velocity attains a value of 99% of the main
stream velocity
u = 0.99 U
δ →boundary layer thickness(nominal thickness of
boundary layer)
δ * → displacement thickness
Q →momentum thickness
δe →Energy thickness
DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS : δ *
• It is the distance measured to the boundary by which
mainstream in displaced to an account of formation of
boundary layer.
• It is also defined as additional wall thickness that would
have to be added to compensate for the reduction in flow
rate on account of boundary layer formation.
ρ → density of fluid
U → main stream velocity
• Mass flow / second through the elementary strip of width
=ρVA
= ρ u dy 1
= ρ u dy
• If there is no stationary plate, then mass flow per second through the
elementary of unit width,
= ρ U dy
• Reduction in the mass flow / second through the elementary strip,
= ρ U dy - ρ u dy = ρ (U-u )dy
• Therefore total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate,
δ
= ∫ ρ (U-u )dy → 1
0
• Let plate is displaced by a dist δ * & velocity of
flow for the distance δ * is equal to main stream
velocity U.
• Loss of mass of fluid /sec is flowing through
the distance δ* ,
=ρUδ*→2
Equation 1& 2
δ
ρ U δ * = ∫ ρ(U-u )dy
0
δ
δ * =1/U ∫ ρ(U-u )dy
0
δ
= ∫ ((U-u)/U) dy
0

δ
δ * = ∫ (1-(u/U)) dy .
0
Momentum thickness (θ) :
• It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to
boundary by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in momentum of flowing
fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
• Momentum is important where Pressure & shear forces are
involved. 2
• Mass flow rate / second through – elementary strip,
= ρ U dy
• Momentum / sec of this fluid =mass x velocity
= ρ U dy x u = ρ u dy
• Momentum / sec of this fluid in absence of boundary layer,
= ρ U dy U
ENERGY THICKNESS (δ E ):
• It is defined as the distance measured
perpendicular to the boundary by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction of kinetic energy of the
flowing fluid account of boundary layer
formation.
DERIVATION OF DARCY – WESIBACH
EQUATION:
f→ Darcy Coefficient of friction.
EXPRESSION FOR COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION IN
TERMS OF SHEAR STRESS:
FRICTION FACTOR & MOODY
DIAGRAM:
• The Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in
non-dimensional form that relates the Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor, Reynolds number and
relative roughness for fully developed flow in a
circular pipe.
• It can be used for working out pressure drop or
flow rate down such a pipe.
• Developed to provide the friction factor for
turbulent flow for various values of Relative
roughness and Reynold’s number.
• Curves generated by experimental data.
Reynold's number and relation of friction factor (f)
with Reynold number:

• Moody’s diagram is plotted between various

values of friction factor (f), Reynolds number
(Re) and relative roughness for any turbulent
flow problem the values of friction factor(f)
can be determined from moody’s diagram, if
R/K and Re of flow are known.
 COMMERCIAL PIPES MINOR LOSSES
• The loss of head due to friction is known as major
loss whiles the loss of energy due to change of
velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude
&direction is called minor loss of energy.
• The minor loses are due to the following aspects:
 Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe
 Loss of head due to sudden contraction of pipe
 Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe
 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
 Loss of head due to Bend in pipe
 Loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe
 Loss of head due to Pipe fittings
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe:
•Fig shows a liquid flowing through a pipe which has sudden
enlargement. Due to sudden enlargement ,the flow is
decelerated abruptly and eddies are developed resulting in
loss of energy .Consider two sections as 1-1 and 2-2.
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION (hc):

• Due to sudden contraction, the streamlines

converge to a minimum cross-section called
the venacontracta and then expand to fill the
downstream pipe.
Loss of energy at the entrance to a pipe:

• This type is similar to the loss due to sudden

contraction, because when a fluid entering a
pipe from a large reservoir some losses of
energy occur at the entrance of a pipe due to
sudden change of area of flowing fluid.
• hi is similar to hc.
hi = 0.5v2 /2g
Loss of energy at the exit from a pipe (ho):

• The outlet end of a pipe carrying liquid may be

either left free or it may be connected to a
large reservoir.
ho =v2 / 2g
Loss of energy due to bend in pipe (hb):

• hb = kv2 /2g

• k → depends on total angle of bend or radius

of curvature of bend.
Loss of energy due to obstruction in a pipe
(hobs):
• The loss of energy due to an obstruction in the
pipe takes place on account of the reduction
in the cross sectional area of the pipe by the
presence of obstruction which is followed by
an abrupt enlargement of the stream beyond
the obstruction.
Loss of energy in various pipe fittings (hv):

Loss of energy due to gradual contraction (or)

enlargement (hc):

k → depends on angle of convergence or divergence

Flow through Pipes in series or
compound pipe
• It is defined as the pipes of different diameters
and lengths are connected with one another
to form a single pipeline.
• For this type, discharge through all the pipes is
same. Q = Q1= Q2 = Q3 =..........etc.,
• The total loss of head through the entire
system is sum of the losses in all individual
pipes.
Flow through Pipes in parallel
• When pipes of different diameters are joined,
as shown in figure ,the pipes are said to be in
parallel.
• For pipes in parallel, rate of flow in main pipe
is equal to sun of rate of flow through branch
pipes.
• Q = Q1 + Q2