1.

As the gage increases the

diameter and circular area
decreases.
2. The circular area doubles for
every three gage size.
3.The higher the gage number,
the thinner the wire, the
greater the resistance of the
wire for any given length.
 Circular mil (cmil) –
cross sectional area of
round wire.
 1 mil = 0.001”

 X cmil = d2 (mil)

Example:
d = 0.005 in = 5mil
Circular mil = (5 mil)2
Area = 25 cmil
Solid wire is made of only
one conductor. If bent or
flexed repeatedly, solid
wire may break. Therefore
solid wire is used in
places where bending and
flexing is not encountered.
House wiring is a good
example of the use of solid
wire.
Stranded wire is made up of several
individual strands put together in a
braid. Some uses for stranded wire
include telephone cords, extension
cords, and speaker wire, to name a
few. Stranded wire is flexible, easier
to handle, and less likely to develop
an open break. Sizes for stranded
wire are equivalent to the sum of the
areas for the individual strands.
The braided conductor is
used for very low
resistance. It is wide or low
R and thin for flexibility,
and the braiding provides
many strands. A common
application is a grounding
connection, which must
have very low R.
Coaxial cable with an outside diameter of
¼ in. is generally used for the signals in
cable tv. In construction, there is an inner
solid wire, insulated from metallic braid
that serves as the other conductor. The
entire assembly is covered by an outer
plastic jacket. In operation, the inner
conductor has the desired signal voltage
with respect to ground, and the metallic
braid is connected to ground to shield the
inner conductor against interference.
Coaxial cable, therefore, is a shielded
type of transmission line.
With twin-lead wire, two
conductors are embedded
in plastic to provide
constant spacing. This
type of line is commonly
used in television for
connecting the antenna to
the receiver.
(also known as multi-
wire planar cable) is a
cable with many
conducting wires
running parallel to
each other on the
same flat plane. As a
result the cable is
wide and flat. Its
name comes from its
resemblance to a
piece of ribbon.
The spade lug is
often used for
screw-type
terminals.
The alligator clip is
convenient for a
temporary
connection.
Alligator clips come
in small and large
sizes.
The banana pins
in have spring-
type sides that
make a tight
connection.
The terminal
strip provides
a block for
multiple
solder
connections.
The RCA (Radio Corp of
America)-type plug is
commonly used for shielded
cables with audio equipment.
The inner conductor of the
shielded cable is connected to
the center pin of the plug, and
the cable braid is connected to
the shield. Both connections
must be soldered.
 The phone plug is still used in
many applications but usually
in a smaller size. The ring is
insulated from the sleeve to
provide for two connections.
There may be a separate tip,
ring, and sleeve for three
connections. The sleeve is
usually the ground side.
The plug is called
an F connector.
It is
universally used in
cable television
because of its
convenience.
A multiple pin
connector having many
conductors. This type
of connector is often
used to connect the
components of a
computer system, such
as the monitor and the
keyboard, to the
computer.
A spring-loaded metal
hook as a grabber for a
temporary connection to
a circuit. This type of
connector is often used
with the test leads of a
VOM or a DMM.
Electronic circuits are
mounted on a plastic or
fiberglass insulating board
with printed wiring. This is
a printed-circuit (PC) or
printed-wiring (PW) board.
One side has the
components, such as
resistors, capacitors, coils,
transistors, diodes, and
integrated-circuit (IC)
units.
The other side has the
conducting paths printed
with silver or copper on the
board, instead of using
wires. On a double sided
board, the component side
also has printed wiring.
Sockets, small metal eyelets,
or holes in the board are
used to connect the
components to the wiring.
A small crack in the printed wiring acts like
an open circuit preventing current flow.
Cracks can be repaired by soldering a short
length of bare wire over the open circuit. If
a larger section of printed wiring is open,
or if the board is cracked, you can bridge
the open circuit with a length of hookup
wire soldered at two convenient end
terminals of the printed wiring. In many
electronic industries, special kits are
available for replacing damaged or open
traces on PC boards.
A switch is a component that
allows us to control whether the
current is on or off in a circuit. A
closed switch has practically zero
resistance, whereas an open
switch has nearly infinite
resistance.
With the switch closed, a
complete path for current
is provided and the light
is on . Since the switch
has very low resistance
when it is closed, all of
the source voltage is
across the load, with 0 V
across the closed contacts
of the switch.
With the switch open, the
path for current is
interrupted and the bulb
does not light. Since the
switch has very high
resistance when it is
open, all of the source
voltage is across the open
switch contacts, with 0 V
across the load.
Pole - is defined as the number
of completely isolated circuits
that can be controlled by the
switch.
Throw - is defined as the
number of closed contact
positions that exist per pole.
Slow – Blow Fuses
These have coiled construction. They are
designed to open only on a continued
overload, such as a short circuit. The purpose
of coiled construction is to prevent the fuse
from blowing on a temporary current surge. As
an example, a slow-blow fuse will hold a 400%
overload in current for up to 2 s. Circuits with
an electric motor use slow-blow fuses because
the starting current of a motor is much more
than its running current.
Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker can be used in place of a
fuse to protect circuit components and
wiring against the high current caused by a
short circuit. It is constructed of a thin
bimetallic strip that expands with heat and
in turn trips open the circuit. The advantage
of a circuit breaker is that it can be reset
once the bimetallic strip cools down and the
short circuit has been removed. Because
they can be reset, almost all new
residential house wiring is protected by
circuit breakers rather than fuses.
 R = ρl/ A
R – total resistance (Ω)
ρ – specific resistance (cmil –
Ω/ft)
l – length (ft)
A – cross sectional area (cmil)
How much is the
resistance of a 100 ft of
no. 20 gage copper
wire?
 Rt = Ro + Ro(α Δt)
Rt - total resistance (Ω)
Ro - resistance at 20°C
α - temperature coefficient
Δt - change in temp.
α is positive it means that
R increases with
temperature;
α is negative R
decreases;
α is zero means that R is
constant
A tungsten wire has a
14-Ω R at 20°C.
Calculate its resistance
at 120°C.
Because resistance wire is made of
tungsten, Nichrome, iron, or nickel, there
is usually a big difference in the amount
of resistance the wire has when hot in
normal operation and when cold without
its normal load current. The reason is
that the resistance increases
with higher temperatures, since
these materials have a positive
temperature coefficient.
The effect opposite to hot resistance occurs
when cooling a metal down to very low
temperatures to reduce its resistance. Near
absolute zero, 0 K or –273°C, some metals
abruptly lose practically all their
resistance. As an example, when cooled by
liquid helium, the metal tin becomes
superconductive at 3.7 K. Tremendous
currents can be produced, resulting in very
strong electromagnetic fields. Such work
at very low temperatures, near absolute
zero, is called cryogenics.
Solid – atoms do not move easily -conduction of
electricity take place by the drift of electrons
Liquid and Gas – atoms move easily- gain or lose
electrons
Ion – charged atoms- results from loss or gain of
electrons
- same as electrons, opposite attract, same charge
repel.
Ionization Current - movement of ions results in
conduction of electricity, creating motion of ion
charges
- same direction with the direction of current
flow
Insulator - An insulator maintains its charge
because electrons cannot flow to neutralize the
charge. The insulators are commonly called
dielectric materials, which means that they can
store a charge.
Among the best insulators, or dielectrics, are
air, vacuum, rubber, wax, shellac, glass, mica,
porcelain, oil, dry paper, textile fibers, and
plastics such as Bakelite, Formica, and
polystyrene. Pure water is a good insulator,
but saltwater is not.
For any insulator, a high enough
voltage can be applied to break
down the internal structure of
the material, forcing the
dielectric to conduct. This
dielectric breakdown is usually
the result of an arc, which
ruptures the physical structure of
the material, making it useless as
an insulator.
1. Conduction through a conducting path.
2. Brush discharge. As an example, high
voltage on a sharp pointed wire can
discharge through the surrounding
atmosphere by ionization of the air
molecules. This may be visible in the dark
as a bluish or reddish glow, called the
corona effect.
3. Spark discharge. This is a result of
breakdown in the insulator because of a
high potential difference that ruptures the
dielectric. The current that flows across
the insulator at the instant of breakdown
causes the spark.
Resistors are used in a wide variety of
applications in all types of electronic circuits.
Their main function in any circuit is to limit the
amount of current or to produce a desired drop
in voltage. Resistors are manufactured in a
variety of shapes and sizes and have ohmic
values ranging from a fraction of an ohm to
several megohms. The power or wattage rating
of a resistor is determined mainly by its physical
size. There is, however, no direct correlation
between the physical size of a resistor and its
resistance value.
 Resistance in ohms – resistance value to
provide the desired current or voltage.
 Power Rating in Watts - to specify the
maximum power the resistor can dissipate
without excessive heat. Dissipation means that
the power is wasted. Too much heat makes the
resistor burn.
 Material Resistance Power Characteristics
Rating
Wire- Resistance wire (tungsten 1Ω to 1W to Requires accurate and
Wound and manganin) wrapped 1000Ω 100W stable resistance
around an insulating core, or values
Core is porcelain, more
 Material Resistance Power Characteristics
Rating
Carbon- Carbon or graphite 1Ω to 20MΩ 1/10, It was designed for
Composition mixed with a powder 1/8, ¼, insulation and
Resistor insulating material ½, 1,or mechanical
brown body and are 2W strength
cylindrical)
 Material Characteristics
Film-Type thin layer of carbon on an insulated substrate. Tighter tolerance,
Carbon Film (usually tan in color) less sensitivity to
Resistor temp. changes

Metal Film thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic Best resistor
Resistor substrate and then cut in the form of a spiral
(blue, light green, red lacquer)
 Material Resistance Power Characteristics
Rating
Surface- thick carbon Fraction of 1/8 to Very
Mount/Chip film on a an ohm to ¼ temperature
resistor ceramic base Mega watts stable
ohms
 Material
Fusible Resistor wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily when
the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the dual
functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.
 Material Characteristics
Thermistor a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance in electronic circuits
value changes with changes in operating in which it is desired
temperature. Because of the self-heating effect to provide
of current in a thermistor, the device changes temperature
resistance with changes in current. If a measurement,
thermistor has a PTC, its resistance increases temperature control,
as the operating temperature increases. and temperature
Conversely, if a thermistor has an NTC, its compensation
resistance decreases as its operating
temperature increases.
The zero-ohm value is denoted by the use of a
single black band around the center of the resistor
body. Zero-ohm resistors are available in 1⁄8- or
1⁄4-W sizes. The actual resistance of a so-called
1⁄8-W zero ohm resistor is about 0.004 Ω
whereas a 1⁄4-W zero-ohm resistor has a
resistance of approximately 0.003 Ω
A potentiometer,generally called a pot for short,
has three terminals. The fixed maximum Racross
the two ends is connected across a voltage source.
Then the variable arm is used to vary the voltage
division between the center terminal and the
ends.
A rheostat is a variable R with two terminals
connected in series with a load. The purpose is to
vary the amount of current.
The power rating is a physical property that
depends on the resistor construction, especially
physical size.
1. A larger physical size indicates a higher power
rating.
2. Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher
temperatures.
3. Wire-wound resistors are larger and have
higher wattage ratings than carbon resistors.
Resistors keep their characteristics almost indefinitely
when not used. Without any current in a circuit to heat the
resistor, it has practically no change with age. The shelf life
of resistors is therefore usually no problem.
 Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101 +/- 1%
Red 2 102 +/- 2%
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105 +/- 0.5%
Blue 6 106 +/- 0.25%
Violet 7 107 +/- 0.1%
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 +/- 5%
Silver 10-2 +/-10%
If there is no color band for tolerance, it is ±20%.
Semiconductors conduct less than metal
conductors but more than insulators.
Some common semiconductor materials
are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and
carbon (C). Silicon is the most widely used
semiconductor material in the electronics
industry. Almost all diodes, transistors, and
ICs manufactured today are made from
silicon.
Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in
their purest form. An example would be a
semiconductor crystal with only silicon atoms.
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors with
other atoms mixed in. These other atoms are
called impurity atoms. The process of adding
impurity atoms is called doping. Doping alters the
characteristics of the semiconductor, mainly its
conductivity.
n – type semiconductors -a semiconductor that has
been doped with pentavalent impurity atoms. The
result is a large number of free electrons throughout
the material. Since the electron is the basic particle of
negative charge, the material is called n-type
semiconductor material.
p – type semiconductors - a semiconductor that has
been doped with trivalent impurity atoms. The
result is a large number of holes in the material.
Since a hole exhibits a positive charge, the material
is called p-type semiconductor material.
A popular semiconductor device called a
diode is made by joining p- and n-type
semiconductor. Diodes are unidirectional
devices that allow current to flow through
them in only one direction.
 A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move
through it in one direction with far greater ease than in
the other. The most common kind of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although
other diode technologies exist.

Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of

electron current flow.
Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b)
Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to
flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. BIAS is
defined as a control voltage or current. Conversely, when the battery is
“backward” and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be
reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed”
when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.
Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol’s “arrowhead” points
against the direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol
was invented by engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow
notation in their schematics, showing current as a flow of charge from
the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This
convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing
“arrowheads:” the arrow points in the permitted direction of
conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow.

Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device

called a check valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only
one direction
A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage
across it, leaving most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If
the battery’s polarity is reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and
drops all of the battery’s voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we
consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-
bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes
sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more
voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts
versus tens of millivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is
due to the action of the depletion region formed by the P-N
junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no
voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin
depletion region exists around the region of the P-N
junction, preventing current flow.
The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such
that the anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type
semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b)
corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode
stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the
symbol.
If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this
depletion region expands, further resisting any current through it.
Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied
across the P-N junction, the depletion region
collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes
less resistive to current through it. In order for a
sustained current to go through the diode; though,
the depletion region must be fully collapsed by the
applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum
voltage to accomplish, called the forward voltage
Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)

When elements such as gallium, arsenic, and

phosphorus are used in doping, a manufacturer
can make diodes that emit different colors of light.
These diodes are called light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). Some common LED colors are red, green,
yellow, orange, and even infrared (invisible) light.
LEDs now operate in place of incandescent lamps
in many cases. A semitransparent material is used
with LEDs so that light can escape and be visible.
How It Happens
For any diode that is forward-biased, free
electrons and holes combine at the junction. When
free electrons from the n-side cross over into the
p-side, they fall into a hole. When an electron
falls, it releases energy. This energy is mainly heat
or light. For the normal silicon diode, the light
cannot escape because the device is not
transparent. Because LEDs use a semitransparent
material, however, light can escape to the
surrounding environment. The color of the light
emitted from the LED depends on the type of
element used in the manufacture of the LED
The mathematical relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance was
discovered in 1826 by Georg Simon Ohm.
The relationship, known as Ohm’s law, is the
basic foundation for all circuit analysis in
electronics. Ohm’s law, which is the basis of
this chapter, states that the amount of
current, I, is directly proportional to the
voltage, V, and inversely proportional to the
resistance, R. Expressed mathematically,
Ohm’s law is stated as : I = V/R
 I = V/R changing brilliance shows
how current varies with the change
in voltage.
 High voltage but low current - due to
high resistance
 Low voltage but high current - due
to low resistance
 V = IR – the product means
voltage,
 If there is current through R, it
must have PD.
 NO PD , NO electrons could
flow to produce current
 R = V/I – ratio of voltage and current
 a resistance can be considered
some material whose elements have
an atomic structure that allows free
electrons to drift through it with more
or less force applied.
 1 ampere = 1 volt / 1 ohm

 1 volt = (1 ampere) (1 ohm)

 1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere

Multiple Units – K ,M,
GT
Submultiple Units – m,
µ, n, p
If R is constant, V is directly proportional with I
Non-linear

R increases with more current as the

fi lament becomes hotter. Increasing
the applied voltage does produce
more current, but I does not increase
in the same proportion as the
increase in V.
Inverse Relation –
Whether R is linear or not, the
current I is less for more R, with the
applied voltage constant. This is an
inverse relation, that is, I goes down
as Rgoes up. Remember that in the
formula I = V/R, the resistance is in
the denominator. A higher value of R
actually lowers the value of the
complete fraction.
 P = IV
746 watts = 1hp =
550 ft lb/s
 2
P==𝐼 𝑅
2
P = 𝑉 /𝑅
Physiological effects
of electric current.
 End of lecture