THEORY:

 a supposition or a system of ideas intended to

explain something, especially one based on
general principles independent of the thing to be
explained.
 a set of principles on which the practice of an
activity is based.
 an idea used to account for a situation or justify a
course of action.
 Hypothesis, speculation, assumption, belief, guess
 Universe

Galaxies Stars

Milky Way

Solar Systems

Asteroids Planets Sun

 Universe

: is derived from the Latin word “universum”

: is the name that we use to describe the collection of all

the things that exist in space. It is made of
many millions of millions of stars and planets and
enormous clouds of gas separated by a gigantic
empty space which is called the universe.

: is all of space and time and their contents, including

planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter
and energy.
 GALAXY
: are sprawling systems of dust, gas, dark matter, and
anywhere from a million to a trillion stars that are held
together by gravity.
Types of Galaxy:
1. Spiral galaxy
: has a flat, spinning disk with a central bulge
surrounded by spiral arms.
: more than two-thirds of all observed galaxies are spiral
galaxies.
2. Elliptical galaxy
: they are generally round but can stretch longer along
one axis than along the other, so much so that some
take on a cigar-like appearance.
: reveals the dust lanes and star clusters of this giant
galaxy that give evidence that it was formed from a
past merger of two gas-rich galaxies.
3. Lenticular galaxies
: they're called “lenticular” because they resemble lenses.
: they have a thin, rotating disk of stars and a central bulge,
but they don't have spiral arms.
: Sombrero galaxy

4. Irregular galaxies
: galaxies that are not spiral, lenticular, or elliptical .
: such as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds that
flank our Milky Way—appear misshapen and lack a
distinct form, often because they are within the
gravitational influence of other galaxies close by.
 Spiral Galaxy Elliptical Galaxy

Lenticular Galaxy Irregular Galaxy

 MILKY WAY
: the name `Milky Way' comes from the band of light that
is seen overhead on very dark night.
: our galaxy is called the Milky Way because it appears as
a milky band of light in the sky when you see it in a
really dark area.
: all the stars we see in the night sky are in our own Milky
Way Galaxy.
: our Sun (a star) and all the planets around it are part of a
galaxy known as the Milky Way Galaxy.
 SOLAR SYSTEM
: consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it
by gravity , the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, dwarf planets
such as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of
asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
 ASTEROIDS
: they are also known as planetoids or minor planets.
: are rocky worlds revolving around the sun that are too
small to be called planets.
: revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits, they rotate,
sometimes tumbling quite erratically.
: lie within three regions of the solar system. Most asteroids
lie in a vast ring between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter.
9942 Apophis Ceres

4 Vista 433 Eros

Terrestrial Planets Giant Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus

Neptune

Lithosphere, Atmosphere
Hydrosphere Biosphere
 Terrestrial planets
: are Earth-like planets made up of rocks or metals with a hard
surface. Terrestrial planets also have a molten heavy-metal
core, few moons and topological features such as valleys,
volcanoes and craters.

Gas giant
: is a large planet composed mostly of gases, such as
hydrogen and helium, with a relatively small rocky core.
:These four large planets, also called jovian planets after
Jupiter, reside in the outer part of the solar system past the
orbits of Mars and the asteroid belt.

:Jupiter and Saturn are substantially larger than Uranus and

Neptune, and each pair of planets has a somewhat
different composition.
 Cosmic Calendar

: History of The Universe In Just 365 days

: is a scale in which the 13.7 billion year lifespan of our

universe is mapped onto a single year.

: the Universe in One Year was inspired by the late

astronomer, Carl Sagan (1934-1996).
Sagan was the first person to explain the history of the
universe in one year-as a "Cosmic Calendar"-in his
television series, Cosmos.
 ASSIGNMENT:
1. How old is the Earth?
2. How was Earth formed?
3. How big is the Earth?
4. What is the temperature of the Earth?
5. Earth’s atmosphere?

https://www.space.com/17028-terrestrial-planets.html
 UNIVERSE SOLAR SYSTEM

13.7 BYA Origins 4.6 BYA

THEORIES

Big Bang, Steady State Vortex Theory, Collision Theory

Tidal Theory, Nebular Theory,
Solar Nebular Theory
 In an effort to make sense of universe,
humans used religion, traditions, philosophy
and science to describe its origin and
structure.

Biblical Verses that explain about the Universe

1. Psalm 33:6
By the word of the LORD the heavens were made,
and by the breath of his mouth all their host.
2. Psalm 147:4
He determines the number of the stars; he gives to
all of them their names.
3. Genesis 1:1
In the beginning, God created the heavens and
the earth.

RIGVEDA
Hindu text that describes the universe as an
oscillating universe in which a “cosmic egg” or
Brahmanda, containing the whole universe-
including the sun, moon, planets, and space,
expands out of a single concentrated point called
Bindu, and will eventually collapse again.
  ANAXAGORAS
: Greek Philosophers

: Believed in a primordial universe and explained that the

original state of the cosmos was a primordial mixture of
all its ingredients which existed in infinitesimally small
fragments of themselves.

: This mixture was not entirely uniform; some ingredients

were present in higher concentrations than others, and
the distribution of these ingredients vary from place to
place.
:This mixture was set in motion by the action of the “nous”
or mind.
: A whirling motion was produced which sifted and
separated the ingredients, ultimately producing the
cosmos of separate material objects
 Leucippus and Democritus
: Atomic universe
: The universe was composed of a very small,
indivisible, and indestructible atoms
: All of reality and all the objects in the universe are
composed of different arrangements of these
eternal atoms and infinite void in which the
atoms form different combinations and shapes.
 STOIC

: believed that the universe is like a giant body,

with the sun and the stars as the most important
parts to which everything else was interconnected.

The Stoic universe with its finite system of stars surrounded by an infinite void
 ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY

: Geocentric universe
: Earth stayed motionless in the heavens and everything
is revolving around it.
 NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
: Theory of heliocentrism
: Demonstrated that the motions of celestial objects
can be explained without putting Earth in the
center of the universe.
 ISAAC NEWTON
: static, steady state, infinite universe.
:matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed, and
the universe is gravitationally balanced but essentially
unstable.
 RENE DESCARTES
: Cartesian Vortex Model
: the vacuum of space was not empty at all but was
filled with matter that swirled around in large and
small vortices.
: involved a system of huge swirling whirlpools of fine
matter, producing what would later called
gravitational effects.
 MODERN THEORIES on the ORIGIN of the UNIVERSE

1.BIG BANG THEORY

: current accepted model of the formation of the universe.

: describe as expanding and originated in an infinitely tiny

infinitely dense point around 14 billion years ago (Gya).

: matter was not present the beginning of time, there was

only pure energy compressed in a single point called
singularity.
: the fundamental statement of this theory was
attributed by Edouard Lemaitre in 1927, a Belgian
Roman Catholic priest.

: It was supported by Edwin Hubbles, which

demonstrate the continuously expanding universe
through his observation of galactic redshifts in 1929.

: discovery of the cosmic microwave by Arno Penzias

and Robert Wilson in 1965.
: was a violent explosion which caused the inflation and
expansion of the universe.
: at that moment, the universe was extremely hot that
matter cannot yet exist.

In fraction of a second four fundamental forces were

formed:

1. Gravity (attraction between bodies)

2. Electromagnetic force ( binds atoms into molecules)
3. Strong nuclear force ( binds protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus)
4. Weak nuclear force ( breaks down an atom’s nucleus
and produce radioactive decay.
: after three minutes, with the universe continuously
expanding, it begins to cool down, allowing the
protons and neutrons to fuse and form the nucleus of
hydrogen and helium atoms.

: about 300,000 years later, temperature become cool

enough for hydrogen and helium atoms to completely
form. At that point, photons escaped and light existed
for the very first time.

: after 300 million years, stars and galaxies began to form

as hydrogen coalesce with the aid of gravity.
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE

: also known as cyclic model

: followed the general theory

relativity equations of the
universe with positive
curvature.

: this curvature results in the

expansion of the universe for
a time, and then to its
contraction due to the pull
of its gravity in a perpetual
cycle of big bang and big
big crunch.
 STEADY STATE THEORY

: Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold,

Hermann Bondi

: predicted a universe that

expanded but did not change
its density- matter was
inserted into the universe as it
expanded in order to maintain
a constant density.

: was based on an extension

of something called the perfect cosmological principle.
This holds that the universe looks essentially the same
from every spot in it and at every time.
 INFLATIONARY UNIVERSE
: Alan Guth
: Inflationary model
: incorporated a short early
period of exponential cosmic
inflation in order to solve the
uncertainties of the standard
big bang model, such as
horizon and flatness problem
 MULTIVERSE
: Andrei Linde
: sees the universe as just
one of many bubbles that
grew as a part of a multiverse
: which states that there may
be multiple or even an
infinite number of universe
(including the universe we
consistently experience) that
together comprise everything
that exist. the entirety of
space, time, matter and
energy.
 ASSIGNMENT:
Date : June 24, 2019,
Encode in a short bond paper with illustration.

1. Encounter Hypothesis
2. Nebular Hypothesis
3. Protoplanet Hypothesis
 LIFE ON EARTH

Main Idea:
Processes and events dating back to the
big bang eventually led to the existence
of life on Earth.

WHAT ARE THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS ON

EARTH THAT ALLOW THE EXISTENCE OF LIFE?
 LIQUID WATER

Life would not have begun without water.

The presence of water allowed the first photosynthetic

organisms to thrive.

Organisms such as cyanobactria used sunlight, CO2, and

water to produce biomass and oxygen, an essential
component of the atmosphere.
 Cyanobacteria

: are bacteria that obtain their energy through

photosynthesis and the only photosynthetic
prokaryotes able to produce oxygen.
: also known as blue green algae.
: appears to have originated in fresh water or terrestrial
environment
Two possible sources of water on Earth

1. Water released through volcanism.

2. Water that came from the icy meteors of the outer
regions of the Solar System that bombarded Earth.
 HABITABLE ZONE
: also known as Goldilock Zone or Life Zone
: the distance from a star where liquid water can exist
in its liquid form.
: is an area of space in which a planet is just the right
distance from its home star so that its surface is neither
too hot nor too cold.
 HEAT SOURCE
Two main sources of heat necessary to sustain life on
Earth:
1. Heat coming from Earth caused by radiogenic heat
from radioactive decay of materials in the core and
mantle, and extruded via active tectonic activities
such as volcanism and plate movement.
2.The heat provided by the sun in the form of radiation
which enters Earth. As sunlight strikes Earth, some of
the heat is trapped by the layer of gases called
atmosphere.
Earth's atmosphere

:is a mixture of gases that surrounds our home planet.

: it providing us with something to breathe.

: helps make life on Earth possible in several ways.

: it shields us from most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV)

radiation coming from the Sun,

: warms the surface of our planet by about 33° C (59° F)

via the greenhouse effect, and largely prevents extreme
differences between daytime and nighttime
temperatures.
The layered structure of Earth's atmosphere is visible in this sunset view from
the International Space Station.
Credit: Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
 Gases in Earth's Atmosphere

Composed of the following:

1. 78% nitrogen (N2)
2. 21% oxygen (O2)
3. argon
4. carbon dioxide (CO2)
5. many other gases are also present in much lower
amounts; each makes up less than 1% of the
atmosphere's mixture of gases.
6. water vapor
7. small particles - solids and liquids - "floating" in the
atmosphere. ( "aerosols", include dust, spores and
pollen, salt from sea spray, volcanic ash, smoke, and
more.
 Layers of Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere grows thinner (less dense and lower in

pressure) as one moves upward from Earth's surface.

Air becomes so thin at altitudes between 100 and 120

km (62-75 miles) up that for many purposes that range
of heights can be considered the boundary between the
atmosphere and space.
 TROPOSPHERE
: is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
: most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere .
: most types of clouds are found , and almost
all weather occurs within this layer.
: the wettest layer of the atmosphere.
: extends upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about
33,000 feet) above sea level.
: Air pressure and the density of the air also decrease
with altitude. That's why the cabins of high-flying jet
aircraft are pressurized.
; Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near
ground level. Air gets colder as one rises through the
troposphere.
STRATOSPHERE
: It is the second layer of the atmosphere as you go
upward.
: The bottom of the stratosphere is around 10 km (6.2
miles or about 33,000 feet) above the ground at middle
latitudes. The top of the stratosphere occurs at an
altitude of 50 km (31 miles).
: The lower boundary of the stratosphere is called the
tropopause; the upper boundary is called the
stratopause.
: Ozone, an unusual type of oxygen molecule that is
relatively abundant in the stratosphere, heats this layer
as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun.
: Temperatures rise as one moves upward through the
stratosphere.
: the layers of air there are quite stable. Commercial jet
aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid the
turbulence which is common in the troposphere below.
: very dry, air contains little water vapor and few clouds
are found in this layer.
: Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs)
: Air is roughly a thousand times thinner at the top of
the stratosphere than it is at sea level. Because of this,
jet aircraft and weather balloons reach their maximum
operational altitudes within the stratosphere.
Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play a central
role in the formation of the ozone hole in the
Antarctic and Arctic. PSCs provide surfaces upon
which heterogeneous chemical reactions take
place. These reactions lead to the production of
free radicals of chlorine in the stratosphere which
directly destroy ozone molecules.
MESOSPHERE
: is directly above the stratosphere and below
the thermosphere.
: it extends from about 50 to 85 km (31 to 53 miles)
above our planet.
: temperature decreases with height throughout the
mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in Earth's
atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are found near the
top of this layer.
: The boundary between the mesosphere and the
thermosphere above it is called the mesopause. At the
bottom of the mesosphere is the stratopause, the
boundary between the mesosphere and the
stratosphere below.
: it is difficult to take measurements of the mesosphere
directly using instruments, much about the
mesosphere is still mysterious.
: most meteors vaporize in the mesosphere.
: "noctilucent clouds" or "polar mesospheric clouds“
Noctilucent or ‘night shining’ clouds are a summer, polar phenomena,
most commonly observed at latitudes between 55 and 65 degrees. The
clouds can only be seen when the sun is shining on them (at about
83 km altitude) and not on the lower atmosphere (when the sun is
between 6 and 16 degrees below the horizon). They form in the polar
mesopause, which is the coldest region of the Earth’s atmosphere,
reaching temperatures as low as −140°C.
THERMOSPHERE
: is directly above the mesosphere and below
the exosphere.
:it extends from about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500
and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above our planet.
: Solar activity strongly influences temperature in the
thermosphere. The thermosphere is typically about 200°
C (360° F) hotter in the daytime than at night, and
roughly 500° C (900° F) hotter when the Sun is very
active than at other times.
: temperatures in the upper thermosphere can range
from about 500° C (932° F) to 2,000° C (3,632° F) or
higher. Temperatures climb sharply in the lower
thermosphere (below 200 to 300 km altitude)
: the air density is so low in this layer that most of the
thermosphere is what we normally think of as outer
space.
: the space shuttle and the International Space Station
both orbit Earth within the thermosphere.
: much of the X-ray and UV radiation from the Sun is
absorbed in the thermosphere.
: the aurora (the Southern and Northern Lights)
primarily occur in the thermosphere. Charged particles
(electrons, protons, and other ions) from space collide
with atoms and molecules in the thermosphere at high
latitudes, exciting them into higher energy states.
Those atoms and molecules shed this excess energy by
emitting photons of light, which we see as colorful
auroral displays.
EXOSPHERE
: is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere.
: air in this layer is extremely thin - in many ways it is
almost the same as the airless void of outer space.
: the bottom of the exosphere is sometimes also referred
to as the exobase.
: outermost limit of the exosphere places the uppermost
edge of Earth's atmosphere around 190,000 km (120,000
miles), about halfway to the Moon.
: geocorona (region of UV glow )
 MINERALS
By:

Lindon Valmores O.D

MINERALS

: naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and an ordered internal structure.

: is an element or chemical compound that is normally

crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological
processes“

: can be distinguished from one another by individual

characteristics that arise directly from the kinds of atoms they
contain and the arrangements these atoms make inside them"
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Naturally- occurring
: minerals should exist naturally and must be found in
nature.
: steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially they are
not minerals.
: Cubic zirconia and synthetic corundum, substances
masquerading as rubies or sapphires in high school graduation
rings, are not true minerals because, even though they conform
to the other characteristics of minerals, they do not occur in
nature.
2. Inorganic

: minerals are limited to substances formed through

inorganic processes and exclude materials derived from
living organisms which involved organic process.

: almost all known minerals come from inorganic processes

activities that living things cannot carry out.

:coal , which is composed of remains of plants and other

inorganic compounds, is not a mineral.
3. Solid

: Minerals cannot be liquids or gases; they exist only as solids, a

state of matter that possesses a high amount of order.
: Solids have a clearly defined volume and shape, and their
molecules normally cannot be compressed any further. Their
structures are rigid, meaning that the particles within the
mineral don't move around.
: Even those that are naturally formed such as petroleum are
not considered as minerals.
: Ice formed in the glacier is considered as minerals but water is
not.
4. Definite chemical composition
: the chemical composition of minerals should express the
exact chemical formula with the elements and compounds
in specific ratios.

: Each mineral has its own specific combination of atoms that

cannot be found in any other mineral .

: For example, salt is a mineral that consists of sodium and

chlorine ions bonded together in a repeating pattern.
Diamonds, on the other hand, have only one type of atom:
carbon.
5. Ordered internal structure
: the atoms in minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive
geometric patterns or crystal structure.

: volcanic glass, even if it is formed naturally, is not

considered a mineral because it is amorphous and has no
form.

: mineraloids are substances that fulfill all the requirements

but do not have an ordered internal structure.
 COMPOSITION OF MINERALS
1. SILICATES
: composed primarily of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons (SiO₄ ²⁻).
as fundamental units in all silicates.
: major rock forming minerals in the Earths crust. and includes
olivine (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄) and quartz (SiO₂).
: approximately 25 percent of all known minerals and 40 percent
of the most common ones are silicates; the igneous rocks that
make up more than 90 percent of Earth’s crust are composed of
virtually all silicates.
2. OXIDES
: consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen anions.
: common oxide minerals are magnetite (Fe₂O₄) and
hematite ( Fe₂O₃).
: most of the Earth’s crust consists of solid oxides, the result of
elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or water.

Magnetite Hematite
3. SULFIDES
: consists of metal cation bonded to sulfide.
: form an important group of minerals which includes the
majority of the ore minerals for iron, copper, nickel, lead,
cobalt, zinc, and silver.
: The largest group of ore minerals consists of sulfides.
: Examples of sulfides are galena (PbS) pyrite ( FeS)

Galena Pyrite Chromite (Ore)

4. SULFATES
: consist of metal cation bonded to the SO₄⁻² anionic group.
: This class of minerals tends to be evaporates or forms from
volcanically heated water. As a group they are soft and pale in
color and sometimes transparent or translucent.
: they usually precipitate out of water near Earths surface.
: There are many minerals in the sulfate group but most are rare
in occurrence. Anhydrate, barite, and gypsum are minerals that
are common in this class.

Gypsum Barite Celestite

5. HALIDES
: are formed by combining a metal with one of the five halogen
elements, chlorine, bromine, fluorine, iodine, and astatine.
: many of these compounds will dissolve in water.

: Example: Halite (NaCl) or rock salt, It is a mineral that has

many uses including making table salt

Fluorite( CaF2) or calcium fluoride is another common

halide mineral. The primary use of fluorite is in the making of
steel and aluminum.

Sylvite is similar to halite in that is that there are huge beds

deposited by ancient seas. Because it contains potassium
sylvite is used as a fertilizer.
Halites Flourites

Sylvite
6. CARBONATES
: characterized by the presence of carbonic ion ( CO₃²⁻) which
bonds element such as calcium or magnesium to form calcite
( CaCO₃) or dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂).
: in nature, carbon atoms join with oxygen to form the
carbonate ion, CO3. These ions combine with metal cations to
form carbonate minerals.
: these minerals are commonly formed in sedimentary and
oxidizing environments.
:The carbonates fall into three groups: the calcite group,
the dolomite group, and the aragonite group. The copper
carbonate minerals, azurite and malachite, are the only
important economic carbonates.
Minerals of the carbonate class:
1.Are transparent.
2.Are lightly-colored with a white streak.
3.Have average to above average specific gravity.
4.Are soft with good to perfect cleavage.
5.Soluble in acidic solutions.

Azurite Malachite Copper carbonate minerals

7. NATIVE METALS
: is a term used to describe metals discovered in their natural,
elemental form – either as an alloy, or in pure form.

: Most native metals (including aluminum, arsenic, bismuth,

cadmium, chromium, cobalt, iron, lead, mercury, nickel,
selenium, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zinc) are highly reactive
when exposed to water, light, and other elements of nature –
which means they are more likely to occur as small, isolated
pockets of reduced ore, or as small flakes or inclusions.

: Gold, silver, copper, and platinum are the least reactive of

native metals. This greater capacity for endurance means they
are the most likely native metals to be discovered in larger
deposits – and their wider availability and occurrence offers a
variety of interest to collectors
 Gold (Au) Silver (Ag)

Copper (Cu) Platinum (Pt)

THE SIX CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
: 4000 known minerals.
: includes the following
1. Formation
2. Habit
3. Cleavage
4. Fracture
5. Luster
6. Color
7. Streak
8. Hardness
9. Density
10. Magnetism
11. Taste
12. Feel
13. Reaction to acid
 CRYSTAL FORM and HABIT
Crystal habit
: refers to the general crystal form and combination in which
minerals are habitually form.
: is the tendency for specimens of a mineral to repeatedly grow
into characteristic shapes.
: these shapes are influenced by the atomic structure of the
mineral, but they can also be influenced by the environment of
crystal growth.

Crystal form
: is the geometric shape of a crystal
: is a solid crystalline object that is bounded by a set of flat faces
that are related to one another by symmetry.
CRYSTAL HABITS

Acicular
Long and needle-like, thinner than prismatic but thicker
than fibrous. Natrolite crystals can be good examples of acicular
crystals.
 Bladed
: Elongated and flattened like a blade of grass. More elongated
than platy and thinner than tabular. Kyanite forms crystals that
are a good example of bladed crystals.
 Lamellar
Layered masses like sheets of paper. Muscovite forms aggregates
that are a good example of this form.
 Geode
A hollow stone embedded in a layer of rock mineralogically
different from the mineral composing the outer shell of the geode
Celestite is found in good examples of this form.
 Dendritic
A branching growth of crystals usually on a surface or as an
inclusion that forms plant-like patterns similar to "Jack Frost" on
windows and similar to arborescent, but less tree-like. Sal
ammoniac forms aggregates that are a good example of this form.
 Fibrous
Thinner than acicular crystals in either individual crystals or in a
tight compact almost cloth-like mass. Okenite forms crystals that
are a good example of the fibrous habit.
 Arborescent
Branching, tree-like clusters similar to dendritic. Some of the best
examples of the arborescent crystal form are found in many
specimens of native gold.
CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE

CLEAVAGE
: the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness.
: minerals with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat
and parallel surfaces.
: a good cleavage will result in small, smooth, step- like flat
surfaces
: cleavage surfaces are difficult to identify in minerals with poor
cleavage, while minerals that do not have cleavage will fracture
either in an irregular manner or as conchoidal fracture
( smooth, curved surfaces)
Cleavage is often measured by three factors:

1) Quality of Cleavage
2) Number of Sides Exhibiting Cleavage
3) Cleavage Habit

Quality of cleavage can be categorized into five

qualities:
1. Perfect
2. Good
3. Poor
4. Indiscernible (Indistinct)
5. None
Minerals with perfect cleavage will cleave without
leaving any rough surfaces; a full, smooth plane is
formed where the crystal broke.

Minerals with good cleavage also leave smooth

surfaces, but often leave over minor residual rough
surfaces.

Minerals with poor cleavage, the smooth crystal edge

is not very visible, since the rough surface is dominant.

If a mineral exhibits cleavage, but it so poor that it is

hardly noticeable, it has "indiscernible" cleavage.
Minerals with no cleavage never exhibit any cleavage,
thus broken surfaces are fractured and rough.
Number of Sides Exhibiting Cleavage:
LUSTER:

: describes the appearance of light reflected from a

mineral surface.
: a mineral may be described as metallic and non
metallic,
HARDNESS
: is a measurement of the strength of the chemical
bonds in its structure .

: it can be measured by scratching it with another

mineral or a reference material with known hardness.

: Mohs Scale of Hardness is a relative measure of

hardness using common materials and standard
minerals to represent a specific hardness value.
Mohs Scale Kit
DENSITY
: Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral.
: it is the weight of a mineral relative to the weight of an
equal volume of water.
: most common minerals have a specific gravity of 2.7,
while gold has 19.

Other properties with the corresponding minerals that

exhibit these properties as follows:
1. Magnetism ( magnetite)
2. Taste ( halite is salty)
3. Effervescence or reaction to acid ( calcite and other
carbonates will react with weak acid)
4. Feel ( talc is greasy)
Common Rock-Forming Elements:
 Abundance in crust
Rank Element (ppm)

1. Oxygen 467,100

2. Silicon 276,900

3. Aluminum 80,700

4. Iron 50,500

5. Calcium 36,500

6. Sodium 27,500

7. Potassium 25,800
 Abundance in crust
Rank Element (ppm)

8. Magnesium 20,800

9. Titanium 6,200

10. Hydrogen 1,400

 Processes and Products of the Rock Cycle
Scale
Index Mineral Common Objects
melting Magma
crystallization Igneous rocks
uplift and exposure Sediments
weathering and erosion Sedimentary rocks
transportation Methamorphic rocks
deposition
lithification
metamorphism
FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

: derived from the Latin igneus, which means “fiery” or

“ on fire”.
: are formed from the cooling and solidification of
magma or lava.

3 Ways in which Igneous rock are formed:

1. Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma.
This results in the formation of crystals that are visible
to the naked eye without the aid of a magnifying lens.
Intrusive or Plutonic, they cool underneath the surface
as plutons.

Examples: granite, diorite, and syenite.

2. On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava.
This results in the formation of very small crystals
that may not visible without the use of a magnifying
lens.
Extrusive or Volcanic, since they are usually extruded
during volcanic eruption.
Example: basalt, andesite and rhyolite

3. On the surface from consolidation of particle erupted

by explosive volcanic activity.
When the volcanoes erupt violently, the lava exiting the
volcanoes are ripped apart into smaller pieces by rapidly
expanding gases in the lava.
Pyroclastic rock is a hybrid of igneous and sedimentary
processes and a common eruptive product.
Example: ignimbite (adobe), tuff, and volcanic breccia.

FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

: derived fro the Latin sedentarious which means sitting
: are products of lithification of particles produced by
weathering and other preexisting rocks.

3 Ways in which Sedimentary rocks are formed:

1. From the cementation of sediments that have been

deposited, buried and compacted over a long period
of time.
This type of sedimentary rock is called clastic .
Example: shale, sandstone and conglomerate.

2. From the precipitation of minerals from ions in

solution.

: Rocks that are exposed to water and oxygen can slowly

experience chemical changes such as oxidation (rusting)
and hydrolysis through time.

: These processes break down rocks into their chemical

components, particularly into ions that can be carried by
running water solution.
Once the solution is saturated, the precipitation of
minerals like calcite and halite can occur leading into
the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks.
Examples: limestone, dolostone and rock salt.

3. From the compaction and cementation of plant and

animal remains.

: These types of sedimentary rocks are called bioclasts.

Example: coquina, and organic limestone.
FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
: form when preexisting or parent rocks (whether
igneous, sedimentary, or even metamorphic) are altered
by heat, pessure and the chemical activity of fluids)

Metamorphism ; change in form.

1. When the dominant altering factor is pressure, usually

due to tectonic activity, the flat and or elongated
mineral components of the preexisting rocks react by
aligning perpendicular to the axis of the pressure.
Example: slate, schist and gneiss.
2. When the dominant altering factor is heat, usually
from direct contact between an older rock material and
an intruding body of magma, the parent rocks may
undergo a fundamental change in texture due to
recrystallization, or even change in mineralogy when
chemically-active fluids are also involved.