Ch.

3: Forming a new life

(Prenatal Development)
Prenatal Development: Conception / Fertilization

 Sperm + ovum = single-celled zygote

 Dizygotic (fraternal) twins:

 2 different ova w/ 2 different sperm cells

 Monozygotic (identical) twins:

 Single zygote divides after conception/ fertilization
Chromosomes, genes & DNA

Chromosomes: Strands of genes

Egg & sperm combine for 23 matched pairs of chromosomes

Genes: segments of DNA at specific positions on specific chromosomes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): base pairs of chemicals (steps on ladder)

Humans have 4 base pairs

Genetic code: sequence of base pairs in DNA; determine traits

Gene Expression
Genotype
 Actual genetic makeup
 No two people have the same genotype (except monozygotic twins)

Phenotype
 Observable expression of genetic makeup
 genotype + environment=phenotype
(remember—not nature vs. nurture, it’s nature AND nurture)
Musical ability
Trait Inheritance
 Alleles
2+ alternative forms of a gene
Same position on paired chromosomes
2 alleles for characteristic, 1 from each parent
= alternative expressions of characteristic (baldness)

Heterozygous: Different
Homozygous: Identical
Trait Inheritance (cont’d)
Dominant inheritance (heterozygous alleles)
Child receives different alleles,
1 from each parent
 1 allele is dominant
Dominant allele has influence
(e.g.; brown eyes instead of blue)
Trait Inheritance (cont’d)
Recessive inheritance (homozygous alleles)
 Identical, recessive alleles
 expression of recessive trait (you can’t curl
tongue even if both parents can)
Trait Inheritance (cont’d)

Co-dominant (heterozygous alleles)

balanced influence of alleles, both expressed @ full intensity
allele for A blood and an allele for B blood
both A and B antigens in blood.
Trait inheritance cont’d: Effects of genes
• Polygenic inheritance=many genes=one outcome
• Most traits inherited this way
• Intelligence (50+)

• Pleiotropic effects: one gene=many outcomes

• E.g.; Aggression & heart rate
Genes, Environment, & Development

 How do genes and the environment interact?

Can the environment influence the genes?
Can genes influence the environment?

Environment reflects & reinforces genetic predispositions

Intelligence, musical ability

Multifactorial Transmission
Genotype x Environment (G x E) Correlations
Passive: Parents share genes w/ child & provide environment that fosters trait
Athletic parents=enroll kid in soccer=trait reinforced

Reactive or Evocative: Based on their traits, children evoke responses from

others which fosters trait
Child is skilled in soccer=coaches & parents encourage=trait reinforced

Active & Niche-Picking: choosing an environment that suits your traits

Child is athletic=they choose to practice & play soccer=trait reinforced
Epigenetics/Epigenesis

• Genes turned off/on based on body &

environment
• Diet, sleep, physical activity, etc.

• Differences among monozygotic twins in

occurrence & timing of disease
Stages of Prenatal Development (Gestation)

Stage Duration

Germinal Conception to 2 weeks

Embryonic 2 to 8 weeks

Fetal 8 weeks to birth (usually 37-42 weeks)

Events of germinal stage (first 2 weeks):
Day 1: fertilization

Day 2: cell division begins (mitosis)

Days 3-4: 16 cells; travels down fallopian tube toward uterus

Day 5: cell mass forms; called a blastocyst (about size of a pinhead)

Days 6-7: blastocyst attaches to wall of uterus

Days 8-14 blastocyst becomes fully embedded in wall of uterus (now consists of about 250 cells)
Germinal & embryonic stages

• Germinal stage (first 2 weeks):

• Relatively safe from teratogens (birth defect-producing
environmental factors)

• Embryonic stage (2nd to 8th week):

• Organogenesis
• The beginning of organs
• Cell production & differentiation
Embryonic Stage Characteristics (2-8 weeks)

• Organs & major body systems develop

 Respiratory
 Digestive
 Nervous

• Risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) is high

• Expulsion of embryo or fetus from uterus
• 25-50% (only about 15% are recognized)
• Often occur before mother is aware of pregnancy
• Abnormal pregnancies, chomosomal abnormalities, smoking, drinking, drug use
Sex differentiation
• 6th to 8th week after conception
• (toward end of embryonic stage)

• Male embryos begin to produce

testosterone: internal & external
structure
The Fetal Stage (8 weeks-birth; usually at 37-42 weeks)

• Organs; body more complex

• Toenails, eyelids
• Bone

• More specialized movements

after 22 weeks
• Facial expressions
• Coordinated hand
movements
Teratogens
Environmental factors that cause birth defects

• Tobacco & nicotine

• Low birth weight, miscarriage, others

• Alcohol
• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Prenatal & Childbirth Care
• Includes:
 Education
 Social services
 Nutritional services
 Antibiotics
 Anesthesia during childbirth
• Resulted in dramatic reduction of risks related to
pregnancy and birth (for mothers and children)
• BUT, Not evenly distributed among SES, ethnic groups
Infant mortality rates in the U.S.
• In 1900 in US; 100 infants died for every 1,000 live births

• In 2006, 6.7 per 1,000

• Preventions of SIDS, more effective medical treatments & technologies,
antibiotics, widespread use of vaccinations, hospital births

• BUT….
Reasons for mortality rate in U.S.
• Preterm births
• LBW
• Racial/SES disparities
• African American infants 2.5 times as likely to die in 1st year as White & Hispanic
• SIDS & LBW more prevalent among African American babies.