Criminalistics – Police

Photography
Deals with the study of the different
types of cameras and its principles, its
historical development and the kinds
of photography as applied in police
works as well as techniques in the
preparation of photographic evidence
in court
 INTRODUCTION
 In the field of criminal Investigation
documentation plays a vital role in the
presentation of the crime scene during
court trials. The evidence gathered as
well as the appearance of the crime
scene will all be necessary to prove the
association of the suspect/s with the
crime scene. Photography will
accurately show the evidence taken from
the crime scene. The recorded
photograph could vividly show the
actual appearance of the evidence
collected from the crime scene.
 Basic Principles Involved in
Photography
 A photograph is the mechanical and
chemical result of photography. To produce
a photograph, light is needed aside from
sensitized materials. Light radiated or
reflected by the subject must reach the film
while all other lights are excluded. The
exclusion of all other lights is achieved by
placing the film inside a light tight box. The
Effect of light on the film is not visible in the
formation of images/objects. To make it
visible, it requires a chemical processing of
the exposed film (development).
 Photography
Defined:
 The process, activity and art
creating still or moving pictures by
recording radiation on a sensitive
medium (film or electronic sensor).
Comes from the Greek word:
(Phos) “light”
(Graphis) “stylus”, meaning
“drawing with light”
Light patterns reflected or emitted
from objects activate a sensitive
chemical or electronic sensor
during timed exposure, usually
through a photographic lens in a
device known as a camera that
also stores the resulting
information chemically or
electronically.
 Photography defined: (cont’)
 Photography is the production of visible
images by the action of light on sensitized
material.
 The art and science of reproducing image
on a sensitized material or surface through
the reaction of a certain electromagnetic
radiation of rays.
 A science of recording/producing an image
by the reaction of light and light sensitive
substances (silver halide) that forms an
image called latent image by the
application of several chemicals
The visual effect of light on the
film after development varies with
the quantity or quality of light
that reached the emulsion of the
film. The amount of light reaching
the film is dependent upon several
factors such as:
Lighting condition;
Lens opening;
Shutter speed;
Filter used.
Four Major Factors involved in
Photography:

 1. Light
 2. Camera
 3. Film
 4. Chemicals
 LIGHT defined:

 A visible form of energy that radiates

(from sun or artificial source) in
waves of different lengths.
 A radiant energy which emanates
from heat.
 An electromagnetic radial energy to
which excite the retina of the eye
and make things visible.
 NATURE OF LIGHT
 A form of radiant energy;
 Travels in the form of
vibrations/waves;
 Follows a straight line at a speed
of 186,000 miles per second or
approximately 7 ½ times around
the world;
 White light has primary colors.
 Characteristics of Light
 Wavelength – the distance between
a point on one crest to an identical
point on the crest in a given instant
of time expressed in millimicrons
(mu) which is equivalent in one
million of a millimeter.
 Frequency – the number of complete
waves that would pass a given point
in a second of time.
 Speed – the rate of travel per second
 Wavelength – the distance between a
point on one crest to an identical point on the
next crest in a given instant of time expressed
in millimicrons.

Wavelength is measured in
millimicrons (mu).
1 mm = 1 million (mu)

crest
trough
 Frequency
- The number of complete waves that
passed a given point in a second of
time.
The longer the wavelength, the fewer
the number of waves that will pass a
point in a second, the longer the
wavelength the less the frequency;
the shorter the wavelength the
greater the frequency.
 Frequency
 Electro Magnetic
Spectrum
Cosmic Gamma X-Ray UV White Infra Hertian Microwaves
Oscillation
Rays Rays Ray light Red Waves Radio

400 mu 500 mu 600 mu

700 mu
violet/blue blue/green yellow/orange
red

visible spectrum

400 mu 700 mu
 Kinds of Light
1. Gamma Ray – the shortest wavelength. Given
off by a natural radioactive materials, such as
Uranium.
- part of the fall-out after a nuclear explosion;
- travels through lead & cement, can damage
living tissues;
- used in photographing objects hidden by
opaque mediums.
2. X-Ray – (10-30 mu). Pass through flesh but
absorbed by bones and teeth.
- Invisible radiation can be used to
photograph internal organs.
3. Ultra-violet Ray – (200-400mu). Cause to tan,
help the skin to produce Vitamin D.
- Large amounts are harmful and dangerous
and may cause skin cancer;
- used to photograph questioned document.
4. Visible Light – (400-700 mu). Appears
white/colorless but is made up of colors, each
with different wavelengths.
5. Infra-red – (700 mu) – Invisible, but can feel
the heat.
- used to detect cancer and arthritis;
- used to take picture/photograph in the dark;
- used in photographing/recording charred
(burnt) patterns, overwriting documents and
internal injuries
6. Hertian/Radio Waves – The longest
wavelength.
- used for satellite communication,
carry TV and Radio signal.
7. Current Oscillation – An alternating
flow of an electrical current.
8. Microwaves – Very short waves.
- used in microwave oven;
- used in radar.
9. Cosmic – A charge particles from outer
space
 Color of Light
Primary Colors:
- Blue

- Red

-Green
Secondary Colors:

- Yellow
- Cyan
- Magenta
 Light and its
Characteristics
The RAT LAW: (Behaviour of Light)
1. Reflection
=Incident Light – lights that strikes the
surface and rebound, it is said to
reflected.
=Incident Angle – the angle at which
lights strikes.
= Specular Reflection – lights that
strikes smooth surface and polished
that the reflected rays are not scattered.
= Diffused – reflected lights is scattered
by rough object/surface.
 Reflection
Smooth & Shiny
Surface
Normal
Incident light
Incident angle
 Diffused
Scattered reflected right
 Light & Characteristics
(con’t)
2. Transmission – when light passes through
an object, the light is transmitted.
= a medium such as a lens/clear window
pane, through which objects are clearly
visible is called Transparent.
= Frosted glass which transmit light
scatters it to objects cannot be seen clearly
is termed Translucent.
3. Absorption – light that falls upon an
object and is either transmitted or
reflected.
4. Refraction – ray of light which passes
obliquely (at an angle) from a
medium through a substance of
different density is bent.
5. Opaque – a medium that will not
transmit light at all.

Light Sources:
1. Natural (sunlight)

2. Artificial (man-made source of light)

Diffraction Refraction
 Light and Lenses

 1. FOCAL LENGTH
 2. LENS
 3. SENSITIZED MATERIAL/S
 THE CAMERA

 A light tight box chambered to the

aperture enclosed in a shutter at the
opposite side or end of which is the
place where sensitized material is
located.
 A mechanical device that is used to
form and record the rays of light ( as
reflected by the object) on the film
inside the light tight/camera.
 Main Light Control of
Camera
Focal Shutter
View Finder

Diaphragm

Shutter
 Principle of Camera:

 The exposure of the

sensitized material to light
is controlled by the lens and
its aperture, and the
shutter through its speed in
opening and closing
 Early Forms of Camera
 Pinhole Camera – a camera of simple
design and construction, usually home-
made consisting of a box having a small
aperture functioning as a lens at one
end with the image being projected on
the film at the other end.
 Box Camera – a simple camera which is
little more than a pinhole camera. It
has lens and a shutter. In the box
camera, the pinhole is replaced by the
lens to enable the photographer gather
light to be recorded.
 Camera Obscura -
 Function of a Camera
The camera is the image-forming
device, and photographic film or
silicon electronic image sensor is
the sensing medium. The
respective recording medium can
be the film itself, or a digital
electronic or magnetic memory.
 Function of camera
(cont’)
Photographers control the camera and lens
to “expose the light recording material to
the required amount of light to form a
“latent image” (on film) or “raw file” (in
digital cameras) which after appropriate
processing, is converted to a usable
image. Digital cameras replace film with
an electronic image sensor based on light-
sensitive electronics such as charge-
coupled device (CCD) or complementary
metal-oxide-semi-conductor (CMOS)
technology. The resulting digital image is
stored electronically, but can be
reproduced on paper or film
 Function of camera
(cont’)
The movie camera is a type of photographic
camera which takes a rapid sequence of
photographs on strips of film. In contrast
to a still camera, which captures a single
snapshot at a time, the movie camera
takes a series of images called a “frame”.
This accomplished through an
intermittent mechanism. The frames are
later played back in a movie projector at
a specific speed called the “frame rate”
(number of frames per second).
 Camera Controls
 Focus - the adjustment to place the
sharpest focus where it is desired on the
subject.
 Aperture - adjustment of the iris
measured as f-number, which controls the
amount of light passing through the lens.
Aperture also has effect on focus and depth
of field, the smaller the opening, the less
light but the greater the depth of field---
that is, the greater the range within which
objects appear to be sharply focused.
 Camera controls (cont’)
 Shutter Speed - adjustment of the speed
(often expressed either as fractions of
seconds or as an angle, with mechanical
shutters) of the shutter to control the
amount of time during which the imaging
medium is exposed to light for each
exposure. Shutter speed may be used to
control the amount of light striking the
image plane; “faster” shutter speeds
decrease both the amount of light and the
amount of image blurring from motion of
the subject and/or camera
 Camera controls (cont’)
 White balance - on digital cameras,
electronic compensation for the color
temperature associated with a given
set of lighting conditions, ensuring
that white light is registered as such
on the imaging chip and that the
colors in the frame will appear
natural. On mechanical, film-based
cameras, this function is served by
the operator’s choice of film stock or
with color correction filters.
 Camera controls (cont’)
 Metering - a measurement of exposure so that
highlights and shadows are exposed according
to the photographer’s wishes. Many modern
cameras the meter and exposures are set
automatically. Before automatic exposure.
Correct exposure was accomplished with the
use of a separate light metering device or by
the photographer’s knowledge and experience
of gauging correct settings. To translate the
amount of light into a usable aperture and
shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for
the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light.
This is done by setting the “film speed” or ISO
sensitivity into the meter
 Camera controls (cont’)
 ISO Speed - ISO speeds are
employed on modern digital cameras
as an indication of the system’s gain
from light to numerical output and
to control the automatic exposure
system. A correct combination of
ISO speed, aperture, and shutter
speed leads to an image that is
neither too dark nor too light.
 Camera controls are inter-related. The
total amount of light reaching the film
plane (the “exposure”) changes with
the duration of exposure, aperture of
the lens, and, the effective focal length
of the lens (which in variable focal
length lenses, can change as the lens is
zoomed). Changing any of these
controls can alter exposure. Many
cameras may be set to adjust most or
all of these controls automatically. This
automatic functionality is useful for
occasional photographers in many
situations
 The duration of an exposure is referred to
as shutter speed, often even in cameras
that don’t have a physical shutter, and is
typically measured in fractions of a second.
 Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-
stop (derived from focal ratio), which is
proportional to the ratio of the focal length
to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-
number is decrease by a factor of __, the
aperture diameter is increased by the same
factor, and its area is increased by a factor
of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a
typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16,
22, 32, where going up “one stop” (using
lower f-stops numbers) doubles the amount
of of light reaching the film, and stopping
down one stop halves the amount of light.
 Exposures can be achieved through various
combinations of shutter speed and
aperture. For example, f/8 at 8 ms(=1/125th
of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (=1/25th of a
second) yield the same amount of light.
The chosen combination has an impact on
the final result. In addition to the subject
or camera movement that might vary
depending on the shutter speed, the
aperture (and the focal length of the lens)
determine the depth of field, which refers
to the range of distances from the lens that
will be in focus. For example, using a long
lens and a large aperture (f/2.8) a subject’s
eyes might be in sharp focus, but not the
tip of the nose. With a smaller aperture
(f/22), or a shorter lens, both the subject’s
eyes and nose can be in focus
 With a very small apertures, such
as pinholes, a wide range of
distance can be brought into focus.
 Image capture is only part of the
image forming process. Regardless
of material, some process must be
employed to render the latent
image captured by the camera into
the final photographic work. This
process consist of two steps,
development and printing
 During the printing process,
modifications can be made to the
print by several controls. Many of
these controls are similar to controls
during image capture, while some
are exclusive to the printing process.
Most controls have equivalent digital
concepts, but some create different
effects. For example, dodging and
burning controls are different
between digital and film processes.
 Printing Modifications:
 Chemicals and process used during film development
 Duration of exposure
 Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has
no effect on depth of field
 Contrast
 Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas,
resulting in lighter areas
 Burning in – increase exposure of certain areas,
resulting in darker areas
 Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc.
 Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)
 Paper size
 Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and
white prints
 Present Types of
Camera:
1. Roll Film Camera
a. Box Camera
b. Folding Camera
c. Reflex Camera
c.1. SLR (single lens reflex)
c.2 TLR (twin lens reflex)
2. Press Camera – for commercial and
news photographer (bellows could
be extended to 2 – 3 times their
normal length.
3. View Camera – a larger versions of
press camera, used in studios for portrait
pictures, usually used for architecture,
group or other outdoor photography .
4. Studio Camera – similar to the view
camera, primarily used for portraiture,
copy work, small photography and indoor
photography.
5. Graphic Camera – A type of view
camera, smaller in version designed to
be folded up when not in used.
6. Camera Still Picture (for general
purposes).
7. Instant (Polaroid) Camera – 3 ¼ - 4 ½.
8. Video Still Camera – Uses a
computer disk can be viewed on a
television screen or monitor.
9. Disposable Camera – film in one
handy, throw away package.
10. Digital Camera – uses CCD
technology to record the image as
data on various types of
media/medium such as floppy disk.
11. Movie Camera – type of
photographic camera which takes a
rapid sequence of photographs of a
series of images on strips of film.
 Common Parts & How Camera
Works
1. Viewfinder/Viewing System – shows the
scene the picture will cover, through a set
of lenses or the picture-taking lens itself.
2. Film – a material that is treated with a
coating of light sensitive photochemical.
3. Camera Body – a box that houses the
various parts of the camera & and protect
the film from all light except that which
enters through the lens when the shutter
is released.
4. Aperture/Diaphragm – a light control
device usually made up of overlapping
metal leaves.
5. Film Advance – a mechanism which allows the
film to be move accurately from one spool to
another, as each section of film is exposed to
light.
6. Shutter – the second light controller, movable
protective shield that opens and closes to permit
a measured amount of light to strike the film.
7. Lens – a specially shaped piece of glass which
refracts light from outside on the back of the
camera body and creates a reversed, up-side
down image on the film at the back of the
camera.
8. Focusing Ring/Control – move the lens back and
forth which allows the photographer to create a
sharp image of the subject.
 Essential Parts of
1.
Camera:
Light tight box
– exclude all unwanted light that may
expose the sensitized materials/films (an
enclosure that devoids light).
2. Lens – the most essential parts of any
camera, which is responsible in focusing
the rays of light coming from the subject.
- diaphragm may be large or small during
the time of exposure which is represented
by a f-number, the greater the f-number
the lesser the amount of light will pass
through the lens.
 Essential Parts (con’t)

3. Film holder – located at the

opposite side of the lens and holds
the film inside the camera.
4. Shutter – served as the barriers of
the rays of light that will enter and
effect the film inside the camera
and usually placed at the path of
the light passing through the lens.
5. Viewing system/View Finder
- an accessory part of the camera
 Four Basic Settings of an
Adjustable Camera
1. Film Speed – film sensitivity to
light
2. Shutter Speed – how long light is
allowed to enter through the lens.
3. Lens opening/Speed – how much
light is allowed through the lens.
4. Focus – the adjustment to place
the sharpest focus where it is
desired on the subject
 Types of Camera
1. Simple Camera – camera is set
permanently at the factory (fixed
focused). Lens is adjusted to give a
sharp pictures from or about four (4)
feet to infinity.
2. Adjustable Camera – it requires to make
the setting manually.
3. Automatic Camera – settings are made
automatically, it combine the ease of
operation of a camera with some of the
picture taking vesatility of an
adjustable camera.
 Light and Materials:
A. Focal Length:
= the distance between the center
of the lens and the film plane
when the lens is focused at
infinity;
= the distance is usually stated in
millimeters (25 mm to an inch)
= determines the size of the
object and the angle of coverage.
 Focal Length

Film
B. Lens
- a medium or a system which converge
or diverge ways of light passing
through it and forms an image.
- a disc of transparent glass bounded
by two spherical surfaces capable of
transforming an image
- photographic lenses collect light rays
from a scene in front of the camera and
project an images unto the film at the
back of the camera.
= Camera lenses refract light rays and
form images of an object.
 Basic Forms of
Photographic Lenses
Achromatic Lens
Cemented Triplet
Astigmatic Lens (triplets)
 Camera lenses control the
following:

1. Amount of light that reaches the

film;

2. magnification of the image

3. Area of the image is recorded on

the film
 TYPOLOGY OF LENSES
A. General Classification:
1. SIMPLE LENSES – differ in manner
in which light is refracted.
a) Convex lens (positive lens) – with
one surface curving outwards, thicker
at the middle.
a.1. Simple convex – convexo-convex
a.2. Special Convex – special positive
lens
- plano-convex
- convexo-concave
 General classification (con’t)
b) Concave Lens – diverging lens
(negative) lens that posses one
surface that curves inwards
– spreads light rays that have been
refracted through it;
- thicker at the edges than the center;
- Light rays passing through a
diverging lens are bent outward.
Diverging lens is usually used in the
viewfinder assembly.
The Longer the concave surface of
the negative lens, the larger the
image but smaller field –of-view.
 General classification (con’t)
b.1. Simple Concave – concavo-concave
biconcave lens (both surfaces curved
inwards).
b.2. Special Concave – Special negative lens
- plano-concave -= lens with pone flat
surface and one concave;
- concave-convex
2. POSITIVE LENS – a converging which is
thicker at the center than the edge and
therefore has positive focal plane.
-Lens that gathers light rays and refract
lights to meet in a certain point.
Ex. Double-concave
Plano-Concave
Concavo-concave
 Typology of lenses
(con’t)

3. NEGATIVE LENS
- lens that is thinner at the center
than the edges.
- spreads out light rays that have
been refrated through it.
Ex.
Double –Concave
Plano-Concave
4. COMPOUND LENS

Types:
1, Wide angle lens – 35mm to
45mm (60 degrees angle).
2. Normal lens – 50mm (45
degrees angle)
3. Telephoto lens – 55mm+ (45
degrees angle).
4. Zoom lens – focal length is
variables.
 Wide Angle Lens

FL 35 mm

o
60
Telephoto Lens

FL - 55 mm +

o
45
Normal Lens

FL - 55 mm
o
45
 Zoom Lens

FL (variable)
changeable
 Types of Lenses based on
Lens Speed
 LENS SPEED – is the largest
opening of the diaphragm that the
light can pass through;
 - it determines the maximum
intensity of the light entering the
light tight box;
 - it is the light transmitting power
of the lens at its maximum
aperture, or f-stop setting.
 Types:

 1. Fast Lens – lens with high lens

speed, it is used during daytime
or when the lighting condition is
very bright.
 2. Slow Lens – lens with low lens
speed, used during night time or
when there is dim light available
C. Types of Lens in terms of
Focus:

 1. AUTOFOCUS (AF) LENSES

 2. MANUAL FOCUS LENSES

 D. Group of Lenses
according to Focal Length:
 1. Standard or Normal Lens
 2. Wide Angle lens
 3. Fish Eye Lens
 4. Telephoto Lens/Narrow Angle
 5. Zoom Lens
 6. Macro Lens
 7. Shift or Perspective Control
Lens
 Optical/Lens Defects:
Aberration – is the failure of
light rays to focus properly after
passing through a lens or reflect
from a mirror.
- it occurs because of minute
variations in lenses and mirrors,
because different parts of the
light spectrum are reflected or
refracted by varying amounts.
 Forms of Optical
Aberration:
 1. Spherical aberration
 2. Chromatic aberration
 3. Astigmatism
 4. Coma
 5. Curvature of field
 6. Distortion
 Other lens defects:
 a) Flare/Optical Flare
 b) Mechanical Flare
 C. Sensitized Materials/Film:
- material/s which is treated with a
light sensitive photochemical that
record the image.
Types:
1. Black and White
2. Color Film
 Composition/Structure of
B/W Film:
1. Top Coating/Varnish Coating/Protective
Coating
- made of hard gelatin that contains sulfur
from the cow, scratch-resistant protection
2. Emulsion – light-sensitive, made up of
silver halide and gelatin, a layer composed
of silver compounds and halogens.
3. Base – made of plastic, paper, glass or
celluloid or acetate coated with a non-curl
anti-halation backing.
4. Anti-halation Backing – it prevent the
formation of Halo, a reflection of light
 Black & White
Composition

Hard

Emulsion

Base

Anti-Halation Backing
Composition/Structure of Color
Film:
 1. Top Coating
 2. Emulsion Layer
a) Blue filter
b) Yellow filter – contains Carey Lea silver
suspended in gelatin coated between the top
and second layer to absorb penetrating blue
light but allows green and red light to pass
through
c) Green filter – a layer that is
orthochromatic; sensitive to blue and green but
not to red; red light passes on to the bottom of
the emulsion layer.
d) Red filter – a panchromatic, sensitive to
blue and red. It it also somewhat sensitive to
green light to such a slight degree.
3. Anti-Halation Backing
4. Film Base
Color Film Structure

Blue Green Red

Hard
Blue
Green Dye
Red Dye
Anti-Halation Backing
 Type of Films according
to Use:
1. Black and White
2. Color Film – films that have names
ending in Color Negatives (CN) for
printing
3. Chrome Films – films with names
ending in Chrome for color
transparency for slides (reversal type)
4. X-Ray Film – material which is
sensitive to X-Ray region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Type of Film according to Spectral
Sensitivity
1. Monochromatic Film – sensitive to a
single color of light
 Types:

a) Blue sensitive film –treated to make

it more sensitive to blue rays of light
b) Ultra-Violet Sensitive Film –
sensitive to UV rays only.
2. Panchromatic – sensitive to UV rays
and all light found in the visible
spectrum. Suitable for general use in
the preparation of black and white
photographs
 3. Orthochromatic Film – sensitive to
UV rays, blue and green colors but
not to red. Reds are recorded as
dark tones, green and blues appears
as light tones when printed.
 Black & White Processing:
Negatives
 Steps in Producing Final Picture:

1. Production of the Negative

from the exposed film;
2. Production of the positive or
print from the negative.
 Factors involved in Film
Processing & Film
Development
1. Temperature – 68 degrees F to 80
degrees F.
2. Time - time factor is variable
depending on the film-developer
combination.
3. Agitation - an action/process that
keeps the solution uniform so that
streaks on the negative caused by
exhausted solution flowing across the
emulsion do not occur.
 Basic Ingredients of B/W
Developers:
1. Developing Agent (Metol
Hydroquinone)
2. Accelerator
3. Preservative
4. Restrainer
 Developing
Agent/Reducer
1. Metol
2. Phenodone
3. Hydroquinone (commonly used)
– converts exposed silver halides
in the film to black metallic
silver.
 Accelerator
Sodium carbonate/Borax – an alkali
accelerating agent is added to
reduce development time.
Preservative
Sodium Sulfite – keep the solution
from oxidizing quickly.
Restrainer
Potassium Bromide – prevent
fogging
 Classification of
Developers
1. Developers for Processing
2. Developers that increase
the film speed rating so
slower films may be
“pushed” to higher
ISO/ASA speeds.
 Standard Speed
Developers
1. Kodak D-76 – more popular film
developers.
- Gives full emulsion speed,
maximum shadow detail, normal
contrast, and good grain
characteristics. Used to push-
process films up to two (2) f/stops
by overdeveloping 50% to
compensate for the underexposure.
2. Kodak Microdol X – Known for the
fine grain and high sharpness of
image detail. Not active as D-76
should not be used to push-process
the film.
3. Kodak HC 110 – A liquid concentrate
that can be diluted to make six (6)
different working solutions to
process a wide variety of films. It
has good grain, long density scale,
and good shadow detail.
4. Kodak T-Max - A normal
contrast, general purpose
developer for use with Kodak
T-Max films. Good for push-
processing.
 Chemical Processing

1. Development – the process of

reduction. Exposed silver
halides are reduced into
metallic silver.
a) D-76 – developer for film
b) Dextol – developer for
paper
 Factors Affecting
Developing Time

1. Agitation
2. Temperature
3. Concentration of Chemicals
4. Exposure
 2. Stop Bath
- an intermediate bath between the
developer and the fixer. It is usually a
combination of water plus acetic acid or
just a plain water.
Function:
Prevent the contamination of the two
- used to removed any scum from the
chemical solution
negatives that may be due to hard or soft
water;
- decrease washing time and neutralize
any fixer remaining on the negatives
 3. Fixation - The process of
removing unexposed silver halide
remaining in the emulsion after first
stage of development of the latent
image.

Composition:
a) Fixing agent/fixer
b) Solvent Silver Halide (hypo) – an anti-
staining agent (acetic acid).
c) Sodium Sulfate – a preservative.
d) Potassium Alum – a hardening agent.
e) Antisludge agent
 4. Washing
4. Washing
Thorough washing is necessary to remove any
fixing agent and hypo-clearing bath. Failure to
properly wash a negative may result in brownish-
yellow stains and may cause the image to fade.
- Temperature of water should be 68 degrees F.
- Temperatures higher than 75 degrees F can cause
the emulsion to frill or reticulate
- The rate of washing depends upon the degree of
agitation and the amount of fresh water that
comes in contact with the emulsion
- Minimum washing time for negatives in running
water is 20 minutes, in a system that completely
changes the water.
 5. Drying
The final step of processing a negative.
- Film should be gently sponged on both
surfaces with a wet viscose or wet
absorbent cotton to remove dirt sludge;
- Rinse the film and remove the water from
its surface with a sponge, chamois, or
squeegee;
- Use wetting agent such as Kodak Photo-
Flo for final rinse, to break down the
surface tension of water, thereby reducing
the drying time and helps prevent drying
spots
 Steps in Film/Negative
Processing
1. Washing
2. Developing
3. Stop Bath/Water Rinse
4. Fixing
5. Washing
6. Drying
 Factors Affecting
Developing Time
1. Characteristics of Negative
Material;
2. Strength and composition of
the developer;
3. Temperature of the developing
solution;
4. Agitation or stirring during
development.