Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs

The BJT is used in two broad areas- as a linear amplifier to amplify an electrical signal and as an
electronic switch.
The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter junction.
The pn junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-collector junction
The base region is lightly doped and very thin
emitter is heavily doped
collector moderately doped regions.
 Transistor Structure(construction) Basic
BJT construction
 The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two p-n junctions, as in the epitaxial planar structure
 The three regions are called emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C)
 The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter junction.
The pn junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-collector
junction, as indicated in Figure 4.1(b). A wire lead connects to each of the three regions, as shown.
These leads are labeled E, B, and C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively. The base region is
lightly doped and very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped
collector regions. Figure 4.2 shows the schematic symbols for the npn and pnp bipolar junction
transistors.
Basic Transistor Operation

 shows the proper bias arrangement for both npn and pnp transistors for active
operation as amplifier. Notice that in both cases, the baseemitter (BE)
junction is forwarded-biased and the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse-
biased.
DC operation of npn BJT under forward
active mode
 1 . Forward bias of EBJ causes electrons to diffuse from emitter into base. 2.
As base region is very thin, the majority of these electrons diffuse to the edge
of the depletion region of CBJ, and then are swept to the collector by the
electric field of the reverse-biased CBJ. 3. A small fraction of these electrons
recombine with the holes in base region. 4. Holes are injected from base to
emitter region. (4) << (1). 9 The two-carrier flow from [(1) and (4)] forms the
emitter current (IE).
 In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of
semiconductor material, either silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-junction
and we also learnt about their properties and characteristics. If we now join
together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-
junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The
fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal
device forming the basis of a Bipolar Transistor, or BJT for short.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials
that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal
voltage. The transistor's ability to change between these two states enables it to have two
basic functions: "switching" (digital electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics).
Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions: • 1.
Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib • • 2. Saturation - the
transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation) • • 3. Cut-off - the
transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0
 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION

 A bipolar junction transistor consists of two pn junctions in close proximity to

each other • Two arrangements are possible – according to whether the
middle region is n- or p-type material • npn or pnp • Leads are attached to
the three regions, known as emitter, base, and collector
 THEORY OF OPERATION (1) • The majority of current in a pnp transistor is
carried by holes which, being positively charged particles, move in the same
direction as conventional current flow • In an npn transistor, the majority of
current is carried by electrons • The theory of operation of an npn transistor
is in all respects the same as that of a pnp device • The theory of operation
for pnp transistors will be considered here • Transistor circuit symbols are
shown below • The arrow on the emitter indicates the direction of
conventional current flow under normal bias conditions
 An amplifier is a device that boosts the power of a signal, whilst keeping its
waveform the same • Transistors are used in amplification circuits • In normal
use as an amplifier, the pn junction between collector and base is reversed
biased • The junction between emitter and base is forward biased • The
operation of the transistor is also dependent on the width of the material
used to construct the base region • The effect or reducing the base width is
to increase the collector current, IC , whilst correspondingly reducing the
base current, IB • The emitter current, IE , is highly dependent on the base-
emitter voltage, VBE • The collector current, IC , is more or less independent
of the collector-base voltage VCB
 A transistor may be thought of as an electronic tap that is able to control a
large flow of electrons with only small variations of the handle • The handle
in the case of a transistor is called the base • The in and out pipes are called
the emitter and collector • Voltage changes at the base of the transistor
result in changes to the flow of current through the transistor • In practical
terms, a small base current, IB , flows and turns on a much larger collector
current, IC • IC is zero until IB flows • A junction transistor is thus a current
operated device
THE TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER (1)

 There are three ways to connect a transistor for amplification purposes in

practice • In each case one terminal is connected to signal common (ground) –
though not always directly • As a result, the input and output signals are
taken between common and the other two terminals • The three amplifier
configurations are: common emitter, common collector and common base •
Here we shall only consider the common emitter • Typical circuit (npn) and
values shown below
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

 So far we have looked at transistors as amplifying devices. However another

important application is their use as a switch. • Advantages • Very high speed
of operation – present day transistor can operate at up to 109 times a second
• Very high reliability • Electronically controlled operation • Low cost • Small
size • Disadvantages • The switch is not a true open circuit in the OFF
condition – a small but finite current still flows • The switch is not a true
short circuit in the ON condition – there is a small but finite voltage drop
across it of about 0.1V
 In many practical cases, the disadvantages are of little significance • In many
applications the use if transistor switches provides great improvement in
operation over alternative methods such as relays and other mechanical
switches • One of the most important applications is in the control of logic
levels in digital circuits • Modern digital computers rely almost exclusively for
their operation on the use of transistor switches • The operation of a
transistor as a switch is the basics of switching (digital) circuits • In digital
circuits, the outputs and inputs involve only two levels of voltage – HIGH or
LOW – i.e. two state circuits • HIGH logic level is referred to as logic 1 level,
which in voltage terms is 5V or near the supply voltage value • LOW is
referred to as logic 0 • Transistors are cheap, reliable, there are no moving
parts with almost indefinite life and can switch millions of times a second • A
perfect switch would have zero resistance when ON and infinite resistance
when OFF with no power consumption
 When transistor is switched on IC = VCC/RC • We already know that IC = hFE *
IB • Substituting: IB = VCC/hFERC • This value of IB is the minimum for
satisfactory switching • Also, IB = (VBB – VBE)/RB • However, in practice, VBB
>> VBE • So IB ≈ VBB/RB
 The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer
Varistor used to describe their mode of operation way back in their early days
of development. There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction,
NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-
type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made. The
Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing
three connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify
it from the other two. These three terminals are known and labelled as the
Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively. Bipolar
Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied
to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch. The principle of
operation of the two transistor types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the
only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

 As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three
possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal
being common to both the input and output. Each method of connection
responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement. • 1.
Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain. • • 2.
Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain. • • 3.
Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
 The Common Base (CB) Configuration As its name suggests, in the Common
Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE connection is common to both
the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied
between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal
is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the
base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. The
input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the
base current and collector current respectively therefore, the collector
current output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a current
gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in other words the common
base configuration "attenuates" the input signal.
 The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the signal
voltages Vin and Vout are in-phase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common due to
its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its output characteristics represent that of a forward
biased diode while the input characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode. Also this
type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or more
importantly "load" resistance (RL) to "input" resistance (Rin) giving it a value of "Resistance Gain".
Then the voltage gain (Av for a common base configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio
frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency response

 The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into the
transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib. Also, as the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the
collector, the current gain of the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib and is
given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β). As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib,
the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the physical construction of
the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (Ib), will result in a much larger change in the collector

 current (Ic). Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus
control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value
between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors. By combining the
expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship
between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor
can be given as:
Where: "Ic" is the current flowing into the collector terminal, "Ib" is the current flowing into the base terminal and "Ie" is
the current flowing out of the emitter terminal. Then to summarise, this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a
greater input impedance, current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is much
lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit resulting in the output signal being 180o out-of-
phase with the input voltage signal.

 1 thin layer of p-type, sandwiched between 2 layers of n-type.

 N-type of emitter: more heavily doped than collector.
 With VC>VB>VE:
 Base-Emitter junction forward biased, Base-Collector reverse biased.
 Electrons diffuse from Emitter to Base (from n to p).
 There’s a depletion layer on the Base-Collector junction no flow of e- allowed.
 BUT the Base is thin and Emitter region is n+ (heavily doped)  electrons have enough
momentum to cross the Base into the Collector.
 The small base current IB controls a large current IC
 Current Gain:
 α is the fraction of electrons that diffuse across the narrow Base region
 1- α is the fraction of electrons that recombine with holes in the Base
region to create base current
 The current Gain is expressed in terms of the β (beta) of the
transistor (often called hfe by manufacturers).
 β (beta) is Temperature and Voltage dependent.
 It can vary a lot among transistors (common values for signal BJT: 20 -
200).
I C  I E
I B  (1   ) I E
IC 
 
IB 1
 Can either allow current or prohibit current to flow
Useful as a switch, but also as an amplifier
Essential part of many technological advances

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) The bipolar junction

transistor (BJT) is constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two pn junctions
Regions are called emitter, base and collector
 Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between Conductors and Insulators.

Silicon and Germanium

Difference in conductivity

Ge was widely used in the early days of semiconductor development for transistors and diodes.
Si is now used for the majority of rectifiers, transistors and integrated circuits.
 properties of semiconductors are strongly affected by impurities, which may be added in
precisely controlled amounts (e.g. an impurity concentration of one part per million can
change a sample of Si from a poor conductor to a good conductor of electric current). This
process called doping.

The conductivity of the semiconductor material

increases when the temperature increases.

Another way to increase the number of charge carriers is to add them in from an external source.
Doping or implant is the term given to a process whereby one element is injected with atoms of
another element in order to change its properties.
Semiconductors (Si or Ge) are typically doped with elements such as Boron, Arsenic and Phosphorous to
change and enhance their electrical properties
Transistors
Another use of semiconductor technology is in the fabrication of transistors, devices that amplify
voltages or currents in many kinds of circuits
Doping
epitaxy
diffusion
ion implantation
Another use of semiconductor technology is in the fabrication of transistors, devices that amplify
voltages or currents in many kinds of circuits

 npn-junction transistor
The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and
electrons as charge carriers in the transistor structure In
order for the transistor to operate properly, the two
junctions must have the correct dc bias voltages – the
base-emitter (BE) junction is forward biased – the base-
collector (BC) junction is reverse biased
 Transistor consists of three layers of semiconductor, which have an ability to
hold current. The electricity conducting material such as silicon and
germanium has the ability to carry electricity between conductors and
insulator which was enclosed by plastic wires. Semiconducting materials are
treated by some chemical procedure called doping of the semiconductor. If
silicon is doped with arsenic, phosphorous & antimony, it will obtain some
extra charge carriers i.e., electrons, are known as N-type or negative
semiconductor whereas if silicon is doped with another impurities like as
boron, gallium, aluminum, it will obtain fewer charge carriers i.e., holes, are
known as a P-type or positive semiconductor.
Different Types of Transistors:
Mainly we can divide the Transistor in two categories Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and Field Effect
Transistor (FET). Further we can divide it like below:
What are Transistor Configurations?
Generally, there are three types of configurations and their descriptions with respect to gain is as follows:
Common Base (CB) Configuration: It has no current gain but has voltage gain.
Common Collector (CC) Configuration: It has current gain but no voltage gain.
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: It has current gain and voltage gain both.

 Transistor Common Base (CB) Configuration:

 In this circuit, base is placed common to both input and output. It has low input impedance (50-500
ohms). It has high output impedance (1-10 mega ohms).Voltages measured with respect to base
terminals. So, input voltage and current will be Vbe & Ie and output voltage and current will be Vcb
& Ic.
 Current Gain will be less than unity i.e., alpha(dc)= Ic/Ie
 Voltage gain will be high.

 Power gain will be average.

 Transistor Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:
 In this circuit, the emitter is placed common to both input and output. The
input signal is applied between base and emitter and the output signal is
applied between collector and emitter. Vbb & Vcc are the voltages. It has
high input impedance i.e., (500-5000 ohms). It has low output impedance
i.e., (50-500 kilo ohms).
 Current Gain will be high(98) i.e., beta(dc) =Ic/Ie
 Power gain is upto 37db.
 Output will be 180 degrees out of phase.
Transistor Common Collector
Configuration:
 In this circuit, collector is placed common to both input and output. This is
also known as emitter follower. It has high input impedance (150-600 kilo
ohms).It has low output impedance(100-1000 ohms).
 Current gain will be high(99).
 Voltage gain will be less than unity.
 Power gain will be average.
