DETERMINANTS OF

MORALITY
Fatima Nuestro-Bagnol
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Bansud-Campus
“Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex
quocumque defectu”
oThing is good from the perfection of its
parts, evil from any defect of its part.
oA human act to be morally acceptable must be morally
perfect in all its aspects.
The determinants of Morality.
o They are the basis for judging whether an act is good or evil.
 The End of the Act- is the natural termination or completion of an act.
 the end of the act determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically
good or evil. Any act which is consistent with the natural tendencies of human
nature is intrinsically good. But those that are contrary to reason are intrinsically
evils, such as murder, abortion, kidnapping, robbery . We speak of these acts as
being contrary to natural law.
 Actions which are neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality are extrinsically
good or evil. These actions are either good or bad, not on account of their
nature, but because of factors or circumstances concomitant to them.
 The act of eating is an amoral act and is neither morally good or bad. But either
overeating or excessive dieting could be unhealthy and therefore, morally
objectionable.
o Actions which are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all
times. Actions which are extrinsically evil may be
permitted when the factors which render them evil are
removed or corrected.
o Itis a fact that some actions entail pain and suffering,
while some do bring pleasures to their doers. Pain or
pleasure do not define whether an act moral or immoral.
The sexual act, for example, could either be moral or
immoral regardless whether it is painful or pleasurable
experience.
The end of the doer
o It is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to accomplish by his action.
Without a motive, an act is accidental and involuntary. A good motive is truthful,
prudent, temperate and just. It is the most equitable for the most number of
people or in the words of the existentialist the most loving of all in a given
situation.
o THE END DOES NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS is a fundamental moral principle.
o It affirms that one should not do wrong (means) in order to attain a good purpose
(end). The motive of a person, no matter how noble does not excuse an act
which is intrinsically evil. The desire to pass a subject does not justify a student
who for cheats in the examination. Likewise, the need to feed a family does not
justify stealing. The desire to know the truth does not justify torture of a suspect
by the police. The rule is– don’t do wrong even if this will result in something
good.
Motive and Action
o An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is
grievously wrong. In other words, a bad action and a wrong motive make
for a dangerous combination. Stealing in order to buy shabu means double trouble.

oA good action done on account of an evil motive

becomes evil itself. THIS MEANS that something nice and sweet may turn
ugly and sour because of a bad motive.

o A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires

an additional merit. This means you go ahead and do the right
thing. You can never go wrong on this one.
o An indifferent act may either become good or bad
depending on the motive. This means you be CAREFUL of what you
act or what to say.
Circumstances of the Act
o Are the historical elements surrounding the commission of an act, such as the
status of the doer, the place, the time, or the intensity of an act. The
circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns- who, what, where, with
whom, why , how and where.
o WHO- refers either to the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do
with the age, status, relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation
of those involved in act. IN this regard we note the following.
A. The moron, insane, senile and children below the age of reason are incapable
of voluntary acts and are not morally accountable.
B. Educated persons have greater accountability than those with less or without
education.
C. Persons constituted in authority have accountability for the actions of those
under them. This is the meaning of “command responsibility”.
o Thus parents have command responsibility over their
children who are minors; employers over the actuations
of their employees and superiors over the acts of their
subordinates. The law on sexual harassment is based on
the doctrine of command responsibility. The legal or
blood relation of people involved in act may modify the
nature of such act. For instance, killing of a parent
changes homicide to parricide.
WHAT- refers to the act itself, or to the quality and
quantity of the results of such act. IN robbery, what is
stolen and how much is stolen are aggravating factors.
Likewise, the number of victims determines the
seriousness of the murder.
 WHERE- refers to the place where the act is committed. A crime
inside a church is more scandalous than that committed in a
secluded place. Murder in a marketplace is more heinous than that
done in a mountain trail.
 WITH WHOM refers to the companion or accomplices in an act.
The more people are involved in the commission of an act, the
more serious is the crime.
 WHY refers to the motive of the doer
 How– refers to the manner the act is perpetrated. Homicide
committed with much cruelty is a heinous crime
 When- refers to the time of the act. A murder committed when the
victim is sleeping is more offensive than the one done when the
victim is wide awake
CIRCUMSTIANTIAL FACTORS
1. Circumstance may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of an
evil act. The killing of innocent people in the case of terrorists exploding a
bomb in public places constitutes a serious crime against humanity. On the
other hand, killing a tyrant who has long oppressed the assailant accepts a
mitigating factor and therefore is less evil. Nonetheless, the act remains an
evil act.
2. Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of a
good act. Helping another at the risk of one’s life is an act of heroism. Helping
another in expectation of a reward or fee is business transaction.
3. Circumstances may exempt temporarily someone from doing a required
act. A debtor may not pay his debt when he does not the money or if paying
up would cause him great hardships.
4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of a person. The presence of a
person when a crime is committed does not prove he is the criminal.
The Morally Good Act
oA morally good act is that which sound in all aspects–
in its nature, motive and circumstance. In the
scriptures, the morally upright is a just man, one who
weighs his actions in relation to what the law demands,
tow hat the circumstances would allow to what fits his
stature as a rational being. A morally good action, is a
just act– “MAKATARUNGAN”
o We also speak of it as “Makatao” or “maka-dyos”
indicating that such action is fair to the other person
and in accordance with the will of God.
The Relevance of Laws
o Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as
permitted and required. We may therefore consider laws
as determinants of human behavior. Some people do not
do what is good unless they are forced to. St. Thomas
points out that laws are made for those who are weak in
character.
o Society adopts the laws to protect its members from
themselves or from those who might want to hurt them.
By prescribing punishments for transgressions, laws
encourage and compel people to act for the good of all.
Everyone should obey the law or risk being punished. As
authorities would put it– dura lex send lex”, the law is
harsh but it si the law– and everyone must obey.
The Definition of Law
o Law, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is an ordinance of reason,
promulgated for the common good by one who has charge of
society.
o Laws are “ordinance of reason” because they are results of serious
study, deliberation or public debate.
o They are promulgated because they are made known to the
people who are bound to observe them. They are for the “common
good” because the purpose of the law is the general welfare of the
people. They are enacted “by who has charge of society” because
only those who have legitimate authority to govern may pass laws.
KINDS OF LAW
o DIVINE POSITIVE LAWS – are made known to men by God
like the 10 commandments given to Moses. We also call them moral laws
because they are concerned with moral acts,. Violation of these laws
constitutes a sin.

o HUMAN POSITIVE LAWS- are those made by legitimate human

authority such as the laws enacted by the State or the Church. Human
positive laws are intended to preserve peace and order and to direct
members to work towards the common good. They may also have as
their object the moral acts. Violation of these laws constitutes an illegal
act. The constitution and the civil code embody the laws of the
Philippines. Canon Law embodies the laws of the Catholic Church.
oAFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE LAWS:
Both divine and human positive laws are either
affirmative or negative. Affirmative laws are those that
require the performance of an act, like that of giving
respect to parents and that of paying taxes when due.
Negative laws are those that prohibit the performance of
an act, like the prohibition against smoking in designated
public places.
Binding in Conscience
o Moral laws are those derived from natural law. They are the
inherent and essential tendencies of human nature so that they are
thought as being “written’ in the hearts of men. They regulate
thoughts and feelings.
o Moral laws are enforced by personal commitment in the absence
of the threat of corporal punishments or sanctions. Moral laws are
said to bind in conscience, because they impose upon the person
a moral obligation to accept the law and comply with it. Moral laws
then are enforced by personal conviction rather than by the threat
of corporal punishment.
o Human laws regulate only the external acts when these
are manifested and observed. They do not regulate
thoughts and feelings so that for example a person may
not be arrested for wanting to commit murder until such
time when he actually attempts it. Human laws do not
bind in conscience and are purely penal, that is, they are
enforced by police powers and justice is served when the
culprit suffers the punishment.
Properties of a Just LAw
o A human law in order to be accepted as just, must have the following properties:
1. A human law must conform with divine laws. This is because all legitimate
authority comes from God.
2. A human law must promote the common good. The common good is the
communal benefit, material and spiritual, necessary for the promotion of
human life. The common good consists in economic prosperity, peace and
order, health, education and moral instruction of the members of society.
3. A human law must not discriminate against certain individuals or
groups. It must apply proportionately to all members of society so that the
needs of each one are served.
4. A human law must be practicable. A law which imposes undue hardships
and sacrifices in its compliance is not just.
5. A human law must be flexible. It must provide limits
and define the basis for exemptions. Laws are for the
benefit of man, not for his destruction.
6. A law must be amenable. The conditions and reasons
for a law do change. Therefore, a law should be
amendable and changeable.
The reality of Evil
o There are good actions and there evil actions. Their realities do not come from
the mind in spite of some people saying “evil is all in the mind”
o Some people do not see evil, accept it as something “normal” or identify it as
something else. Some would regard pornography as an art. Some think of
gambling and prostitution as means of livelihood. A terrorist believes that
murdering unbelievers is fulfilling God’s Will. A government official believes
accepting bribe is a privilege of his office.
o A pile of garbage is garbage even if a scavenger were to say it is good.
Garbage represents what is ugly, dirty and bad in the surrounding. In contrast, a
rose garden stands for what is clean, beautiful and wholesome. Therefore, only
he who is intellectual dishonest would claim “evil is only in the mind: implying
that evil is something imaginary an illusion.
o The expression “ang masama ay nasa isip lang” should not mean that evil is a
fiction. It should mean rather that an evil act begins in the mind as an evil
thought and is translated into an immoral act. Indeed, the mind is “the devil’s
workshop”
Answer Briefly 1. What factors determine the moral quality of an act?
2. When is an action a “just act”?
3. Explain “the end does not justify the means”?
4. Why do we need laws?
EXPLAIN the following terms
1. Moral law
2. Common good
3. Command responsibility
4. Negative law
5. Affirmative law