LC1: Raise questions towards a holistic appreciation of culture

and society;
LC2: Become aware of why and how cultural relativism
mitigates ethnocentrism; and
LC3: Identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage and
threats to them.
PERSPECTIVES IN THE
STUDY OF CULTURE
AND SOCIETY
1. COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE

-Cultural or social anthropology is a branch of anthropology

that uses the comparative perspective in explaining the
similarities and differences among the culture and society
in the context of humanity as a whole.

-The comparative perspective provides a basic frame of

reference in understanding a particular aspect of human
life in any given community.
2. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

-Using historical events as a reference to a particular

society and its culture is important in determining patterns
in its way of life from past to the present.

- Historical perspective also notes the similarities and

differences but focuses mainly on one society across time.
By looking at their history, we can trace material and
nonmaterial heritage, objects, or ideas that remained over
periods of time.
3. STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

- The structural-functional approach or simply

functionalism is a perspective in sociology first used by
Emile Durkheim and later developed by Talcott Parsons,
Herbert Spencer, and Robert K. Merton that sees society as
a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability.
HERBERT SPENCER 1898 he follows the structure of :
1. Adaptation- A system must cope with external
situational constraints.
2. Goal Attainment- A system must define and achieve its
primary goals.
3. Integration- A system must regulate the interrelationship
of its component parts.
4. Latency (pattern maintenance)- A system must furnish,
maintain, and renew both the motivation of individuals
and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the
motivation.
4. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM PERSPECTIVE

- This theoretical perspective helps scholars examine the

relationship of individuals within their society. This
perspective is centered on the notion that communication-
or the exchange of meaning through language and
symbols- is how people make sense of their social worlds.
- As pointed out by Herman and Reynolds (1994), this
viewpoint sees people as active participants in shaping
their world, rather than as entities who are acted upon by
society.
- Among the proponents of this perspective/approach
include George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) and Herbert
Blumer (1900-1987) who both believed that one person’s
action refers beyond itself to a meaning that calls out for
the response of the other.
5. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

- The conflict perspective presents society in a different

light compared with the functionalist and symbolic
interactionist perspectives. This perspective sprang out
primarily out of Karl Marx’s writings on class struggles.

- Conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted,

and ever-changing nature of society.
6. INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE

- The interpretive approach was developed by German

sociologist Max Weber in response to the rigid adherence
to facts and observation in understanding social concepts.
- It asks people how do they interpret the world around
them, and how do they react to these interpretations.
7. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
- A critical form of sociology carefully analyzes and
questions previous sociological claims and findings.
Critical sociologist question conclusions in order to
improve the quality of knowledge in the field by
disproving incorrect claims or uncovering new truths.

- They do this through integration with humanities and

other social science disciplines such as geography,
economics, sociology, history, political science,
anthropology, and psychology.
 Universal Patterns of Culture
and Cultural Diversity
- Clark Wissler (1923) identified this as speech and language,
material traits, art mythology and scientific knowledge,
religious practices, family and social systems and war.

• Noble Savage
• Ethnocentrism
• Xenocentrism
• Sinocentrism
 DETERRENTS TO CULTURAL RELATIVISM

- During the onset of the 20th century, anthropologist Franz

Boas articulated in his research the idea of cultural
relativism, which was later popularized by his students.
ETHNOCENTRISM
- The tendency to apply one’s own cultural values in judging
the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other culture.
- Viewing one’s own culture and way of living as superior in
comparison to other culture.

XENOCENTRISM
- Preference on other cultures products, style, way of living,
etc. over ones own.
SINOCENTRISM
- (uncountable) the belief, held by the ancient Chinese, that
China was literally the center of the Earth.
- Ideology that China is the cultural, Political or economic
center of the World.

NOBLE SAVAGE
-
- In conclusion ….. Xenocentrism is the reversal of
ethnocentrism and a form of cultural relativism at the
same time.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- Cultural Relativism is the attitude that views other’s
culture in the perspective of one’s own culture
CULTURAL HERITAGE: TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE?

- The term cultural heritage refers to an expression of the ways

of living developed by a community and passed on from
generation to generation including customs, practices, places,
objects, artistic expression, and values (ICOMOS, 2002).
TANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

- Refers to physical artifacts produced, maintained

and transmitted.
- Being touchable or real

Example: Traditional Clothing, Tools, buildings,

artwork, monuments, and modes of transportation.
INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

- The practices, representations, expressions,

knowledge, skills as well as the instruments, objects and
artifacts.
- On the other hand, UNESCO defines oral and intangible
heritage as : “The totality of tradition based creations of a
cultural community, expressed by a group of individuals
and recognized as reflecting the expectations of a
community in so far as they reflect its cultural and social
identity.
- National Center for Culture and Arts (NCAA) is the
government agency recognized by UNESCO to protect and
preserve the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of
the country.