Addition of Naoh To Water: Sodium Hydroxide Pellets Are

Addition of NaOH to water
Sodium hydroxide pellets are

added to water.
The mixture is carefully

stirred to dissolve the pellets.
The temperature of the water

is recorded before and after
adding sodium hydroxide.
Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Addition of NH4Cl to water
Ammonium chloride crystals

are added to water.
The mixture is carefully

stirred to dissolve the pellets.
The temperature of the water

is recorded before and after
adding ammonium chloride.

Results of Both Experiments
Experiment Solid Initial Final

temperature temperature
(°C) (°C)
I NaOH 28 34
II NH4Cl 28 22

What conclusions about energy changes
can be made from these 2 experiments?
In experiment I, heat energy was given

out when the solid dissolved in water.
Thus, the temperature of the solution

rose.
We say this change is exothermic.

What conclusions about energy changes
can be made from these 2 experiments?
In experiment II, heat energy was taken

in when the solid dissolved in water.
Thus, the temperature of the solution

dropped.
We say this change is endothermic.

We have just seen that heat energy is given out
during a physical process, such as when sodium
hydroxide dissolves in water.
Heat energy may also be given out during a

chemical reaction, such as when sodium hydroxide
reacts with hydrochloric acid.

Exothermic Reactions
Reactions that give out heat energy to the

surroundings are called exothermic reactions.

What are the characteristics of
exothermic reactions?
When an exothermic reaction occurs,
a) heat is liberated and is transferred from the

chemicals to the surroundings, and
b) the temperature of the reaction mixture

rises. The container feels warm.

How does temperature change in an
exothermic reaction?
Initially, the
temperature of the
reaction mixture rises
until the highest
temperature is reached.
When the reaction is completed, the temperature of the reaction

mixture falls until it reaches room temperature.
Examples of exothermic reactions
• Combustion of fuels
• Rusting of iron
• Corrosion of metals
• Reaction between acid and alkali
(neutralisation),
• Respiration

Endothermic Reactions
Reactions that absorb heat from the

surroundings are called endothermic reactions.

What are the characteristics of
endothermic reactions?
When an endothermic reaction occurs,
a) heat is absorbed and is transferred from the

surroundings to the reactants, and
b) the temperature of the reaction mixture

falls. It feels cold.

How does temperature change in an
endothermic reaction?
Initially, the
temperature of the
reaction mixture falls
until the lowest
temperature is reached.
When the reaction is completed, the temperature of the reaction

mixture rises until it reaches room temperature.

Examples of endothermic reactions
• Photosynthesis
• Action of light on silver bromide in

photographic film
• Thermal decomposition
for example

Heat Changes in a Reaction
The amount of energy involved in a reaction is

known as the heat change or enthalpy change of
the reaction.
It is measured in kilojoules (kJ) and represented

by the symbol ΔH.

Heat Changes in a Reaction
ΔH H refers to heat or energy

content.
Δ is the Greek letter ‘delta’,

which means change.
For an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative. This is

because the chemicals have lost energy to the surroundings.
For an endothermic reaction, ΔH is positive because the

chemicals gain energy from the surroundings.

Examples of heat changes in a
reaction
When 1 mole of carbon is burnt in excess oxygen,

349 kJ of heat is produced.
This is an exothermic reaction.
For this reaction, ΔH is –349 kJ/mol.
We can show this equation:
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) ΔH = –349 kJ/mol

Energy Level Diagrams
An energy level diagram shows the energy change in a reaction.
This line shows the energy level of

reactants the reactants.
This line shows the change in

Energy
level heat of reaction energy when the reaction is
(ΔH = negative) complete.
This line shows the energy level of

products the products. Notice this gap here
which indicates a ‘delay’ in time.

Energy Level Diagram – Exothermic
Reaction
Consider an exothermic
reactants
reaction. Heat is given out to
the surroundings.
Energy
level heat of reaction
This means that the total (ΔH = negative)
energy of the products is less
than that of the reactants.
Hence, the energy level of the products
products is lower.

Energy Level Diagram – Endothermic
Reaction
Consider an endothermic
products
reaction. Heat is taken in
from the surroundings.
This means that the total Energy

heat of reaction
level
energy of the products is (ΔH = positive)
more than that of the
reactants. reactants

Energy Level Diagram – Endothermic
Reaction
products
The difference between the
energy levels of the products
Energy and the reactants is equal to the
level heat of reaction
(ΔH = positive)
amount of energy given out
or taken in (ΔH) by the
reactants
reaction.

Example:
When 1 mol of hydrochloric acid reacts with 1
mol of sodium hydroxide, 57.3 kJ of heat is
produced. Draw an energy level diagram for
this reaction.
Solution:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
Energy
level ΔH = –57.3 kJ
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

What causes energy changes in
chemical reactions?
The breaking of bonds or the making of

new bonds during a reaction leads to
energy changes.

What causes energy changes in
chemical reactions?
When bonds between atoms are broken, heat energy
is absorbed.
When bonds are formed between atoms, heat energy
is given out.
• Bond breaking is an endothermic process.
• Bond formation is an exothermic process.
Most reactions involve both bond breaking and bond

making.
How can you tell if a reaction is
exothermic or endothermic?
Exothermic reaction:
ΔH bond breaking < ΔH bond making
Endothermic reaction:
ΔH bond breaking > ΔH bond making

How do we determine whether a reaction is
exothermic or endothermic?
Is the reaction 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) exothermic or

endothermic?
To find out, we calculate the energy involved in bond

breaking and bond forming in the reaction.

Calculating the ΔH bond breaking
“+” because bond
breaking has positive
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) enthalpy.
Energy required to break 1 mol of H–H bonds = +436 kJ

(given)
Energy required to break 2 mol of H–H bonds

= 2 × (+436) kJ
= +872 kJ
Energy required to break 1 mol of O=O bonds = +496 kJ (given)
ΔH bond breaking = (+872) + (+496) = 1368 kJ

Calculating the ΔH bond making
“–” because bond
breaking has negative
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) enthalpy.
Each molecule of H2O is made up of 2 O–H bonds

Energy required to break 1 mol of O–H bonds = − 926 kJ (given)
Energy required to break 2 mol of O–H bond

= 2 × (−926) kJ
= −1852 kJ
ΔH bond making = −1852 kJ

ΔH reaction = (+1368) + (−1852) kJ = −484 kJ
Hence, the reaction is exothermic.
All reactions need energy in order to get started.
For example, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen will not

explode unless it is ignited.
Many reactions that do not occur at room temperature will

proceed rapidly when the reactants are heated.
Heat provides the energy to change less energetic particles

into more energetic particles and thus to start a reaction.

What is activation energy?
The minimum energy that reacting particles must

possess in order for a chemical reaction to occur is
called the activation energy, Ea.

Energy Profile Diagram for an
Exothermic Reaction
Energy
activation energy (Ea)

reactants
enthalpy change
(ΔH is negative)
products
Progress of reaction

Energy Profile Diagram for an
Endothermic Reaction
Energy
products
activation
enthalpy change
energy (Ea)
reactants (ΔH is positive)
Progress of reaction

What is a Fuel Cell?
A fuel cell is a chemical cell in which the reactants

are continuously supplied to produce electricity
directly.
The best known example is the hydrogen-oxygen

fuel cell which is used as a source of electrical
power in space vehicles.

How does a fuel cell work?
At the negative At the positive
electrode (anode), electrode (cathode),
hydrogen is oxidised oxygen is reduced to
to form water. form hydroxide ions.

How does a fuel cell work?
At the cathode:
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–
 4OH–(aq)
At the anode:
2H2(g) + 4OH–(aq)
 4H2O(l) + 4e–
Overall reaction:
O2(g) + 2H2(g)
 2H2O(l)
The overall reaction is simply the
conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to
water.
Fuel cell and the ordinary cell
A fuel cell differs from an ordinary chemical cell (or

battery) in one important aspect:
The reactants are not contained within

the cell but instead are continuously
supplied from an external reservoir.

In what way is hydrogen a good
fuel?
It is a renewable energy resource.
It is also pollution-free because only water is

produced when hydrogen reacts with oxygen.

What are the problems with using
hydrogen as a fuel?
It is difficult to find a cheap source of

hydrogen.
There is plenty of hydrogen on this planet, but it is
mostly combined with oxygen in seawater. One
possible way of obtaining hydrogen is by the
electrolysis of water.
It is difficult to find an effective means of

storing the gas.

Addition of Naoh To Water: Sodium Hydroxide Pellets Are

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Addition of NaOH to water

Sodium hydroxide pellets are

The mixture is carefully

The temperature of the water

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Ammonium chloride crystals

The mixture is carefully

The temperature of the water

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Experiment Solid Initial Final

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

In experiment I, heat energy was given

Thus, the temperature of the solution

We say this change is exothermic.

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

In experiment II, heat energy was taken

Thus, the temperature of the solution

We say this change is endothermic.

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Heat energy may also be given out during a

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Reactions that give out heat energy to the

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

When an exothermic reaction occurs,

a) heat is liberated and is transferred from the

b) the temperature of the reaction mixture

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

When the reaction is completed, the temperature of the reaction

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Reactions that absorb heat from the

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

When an endothermic reaction occurs,

a) heat is absorbed and is transferred from the

b) the temperature of the reaction mixture

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

When the reaction is completed, the temperature of the reaction

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

• Action of light on silver bromide in

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

The amount of energy involved in a reaction is

It is measured in kilojoules (kJ) and represented

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

ΔH H refers to heat or energy

Δ is the Greek letter ‘delta’,

For an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative. This is

For an endothermic reaction, ΔH is positive because the

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

When 1 mole of carbon is burnt in excess oxygen,

This is an exothermic reaction.

For this reaction, ΔH is –349 kJ/mol.

We can show this equation:

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) ΔH = –349 kJ/mol

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

This line shows the energy level of

This line shows the change in

This line shows the energy level of

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

This means that the total Energy

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

The breaking of bonds or the making of