Carrier & Doping density

SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESSING
& CHARACTERIZATION
M.TECH,SOLAR

Prepared by :
17MSE002,17MSE010 & 17MSE013
Effect of doping concentration on cell
characteristics-
1. Short circuit current
2. Open circuit voltage
3. Fill factor
4. Efficiency
P-N junction diode I-V equation -

 Dn Dp 
I 0  qA n p0  pn 0 
 L L 
 n p 
  Dn ni 2 D p ni 2 
I 0  qA  
 L N L N 
 n A p D 
Where,
N A is the concentration of acceptor atoms.
N Dis concentration of donor atoms.
Ln and L p are electron and hole diffusion length respectively.
ni intrinsic carrier concentration .at room temp ni is 1.05  1010
for silicon
Short circuit current( I SC)-
We know that-
qv
I  I 0 (e kT
 1)  I L
In above equation putting v=0 ,so
I SC   I L
I L =Light generated current
Let us take a example (1)-
Given-
Ln =40 m
L p=100 m
D=35
2
n cm / s
2
D =10
p
cm / s

ni  1.5  10 atoms / cm
10 3

np0  2.25  10 atoms / cm

6 3

pn0  2.25  10 atoms / cm

2 3
as we know that
2
ni
np0 
NA
Putting the values

2.25  10 6


1.5  10  10 2

NA
N A  10 14
atoms / cm 3

2
ni
pn0 
ND
 2.25  10 2

1.5  10  10 2

ND
N D  1018 atoms / cm 3
Putting the all values in I 0 equation-

I 0  1.6 10
 
16  35 1.5  10 
10 2


10 1.5 10 
10 2 

 40 10 14
35 1018 
 
10
I 0  2.09 10 A
I-V equation of a solar cell is-
 kT
qv

I total  I0 
e  1
  IL
 
10   0.6  
I total  2.09  10 exp  0.026   1  0.028
   
I total  2.17 A
Now assuming the value of
N A  10 atoms / cm
15 3

N D  10 atoms / cm
19 3

I 0  2.09  10 11
A I total  0.19 A
2. Open circuit voltage( V )-
OC

kT  I L 
VOC  ln   1
q  I0 
 0.028 
VOC  0.026 ln  10
 1
 2.09 10 
VOC  0.4V
Fill Factor(FF)-
FF=maximum power/ideal power

Vm I m
FF 
Voc I sc
Efficiency - 
 
pm
pr ad

 
Vo c I s c FF
pr ad
Example (2) –
Voc  0.6V
I sc  30mA / cm 2
FF  76%
prad  100mW / cm 2

0.6  30  10 3  76

100  10 3
  13.68%
CHARGE
DENSIT Y
CHARGE CARRIER DENSITY
• Charge carrier density denotes the number of charge carriers per volume

• It should not be confused with the charge density, which is the number of charges per volume
at a given energy

• The carrier density is obtained by integrating the charge density over the energy that the
charges are allowed to have
• The carrier density is related to the resistivity. The carrier density and doping density are
frequently assumed to be identical. While that is true for uniformly doped materials, the two may
differ substantially for non-uniformly doped materials

• Methods for determining the carrier density:

 Capacitance-voltage
 Spreading resistance
 Hall effect techniques
 Plasma Resonance
C-V METHOD
• Capacitance–voltage profiling is a technique for characterizing semiconductor materials and
devices.
• The applied voltage is varied, and the capacitance is measured and plotted as a function of voltage.
• The technique uses a metal–semiconductor junction (Schottky barrier) or a p–n junction or
a MOSFET to create a depletion region
• The depletion region with its ionized charges inside behaves like a capacitor. By varying the voltage
applied to the junction it is possible to vary the depletion width.
• The dependence of the depletion width upon the applied voltage provides information on the
semiconductor's internal characteristics, such as its doping profile and electrically active defect
densities.
• Measurements may be done at DC, or using both DC and a small-signal AC signal, or using
a large-signal transient voltage.
CAPACITANCE VOLTAGE METHOD
• C–V measurements can reveal oxide thickness, oxide charges, contamination
from mobile ions, and interface trap density in wafer processes

• A C–V profile as generated on nanoHUB for bulk MOSFET with different oxide
thicknesses

• The red curve indicates low frequency whereas the blue curve illustrates the
high-frequency C–V profile

• These measurements continue to be important after other process steps have

been performed, including lithography, etching, cleaning, dielectric and polysilicon
depositions, and metallization, among others

• Once devices have been fully fabricated, C–V profiling is often used to
characterize threshold voltages and other parameters during reliability and basic
device testing and to model device performance
 C–V CHARACTERISTICS METAL-OXIDE-
SEMICONDUCTOR STRUCTURE
• An n-channel MOSFET's operation can be divided into three regions:
• (1) Depletion:-When a small voltage is applied to the metal, the valence
band edge is driven far from the Fermi level, and holes from the body are
driven away from the gate, resulting in a low carrier density, so the capacitance
is low.
• (2) Inversion :- At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the
conduction band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating the
surface with electrons in an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface
between the semiconductor and the oxide. This results in a capacitance
increase.
• (3) Accumulation :-When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-
gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region,
analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges
and voltages. The increase in hole density corresponds to increase in
capacitance.
 HALL EFFECT
• The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field
perpendicular to the current.
• It is simplest method because simple arrangement of equipment low cost and fast turnaround
time.
• The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the
current density and the applied magnetic field.
• It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on
the type, number, and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current.

Contd…
• This is the most accurate method for measuring the carrier density, mobility and carrier type
• Hall theory predicts hall coefficient RH
𝑟 𝑝−𝑏2 𝑛
R H=
𝑞 𝑝+𝑏𝑛 2

where b = µn /µp and r is the scattering factor whose value lies between 1 and 2, depending on the
scattering mechanism in the semiconductor
• The scattering factor is also a function of magnetic field and temperature. In the high magnetic
field limit r -->1. The scattering factor can be determined by measuring RH in the high magnetic
field limit
• r = RH (B )/RH (B = ) B is the magnetic field. The scattering factor in n-type GaAs was found to
vary from 1.17 at B = 0.1 kg to 1.006 at B = 83 kg
• Typical magnetic fields are 0.5 to 10 kg, making r > 1 for typical Hall measurements

• Since r is usually not known, it is frequently assumed to be unity

Contd…
• Hall coefficient is determined experimentally
R H= t * V h / B * I

where t is the sample thickness

Vh = Hall voltage
B = magnetic field
I = current

• The thickness is well defined for uniformly doped wafers. However, the active layer thickness is
not necessarily the total layer thickness for thin epitaxial or implanted layers on substrates of
opposite conductivity type or on semi-insulating substrates.
• For extrinsic p type material with p>>n
RH= r/qp

• For n type material

RH = -r/qn

• Knowledge of this hall coefficient leads us to determine the carrier type as well as the carrier
density through this two equation.

• Normally value of r is unity(with introducing error of 30%).

 HALL EFFECT WITH TEMPERATURE
• Information: For a p-type semiconductor of doping density NA compensated with donors of density ND , the
hole density is determined from the equation,
p(p+ND)-ni2/ NA- ND -p+(ni2/p) =(Nv/g) * exp(- EA /kT)

Where Nv is the effective density of state at valance band

g is the degeneracy factor for accepters
EA is energy level of accepters above the valance band with the top of the valance band as the reference
energy.
• Different condition
(1) At low temperatures where p << ND, p<<(NA- ND) and ni2/p0
p  ((NA- ND)Nv/g ND)* exp(-EA/kT)
Contd…
(2) When ND is negligibly small,
p  ((NA- ND)Nv/g))^1/2 * exp (- EA /2kT)

(3) At higher temperature where p>>ni,

p  NA- ND

(4) At still higher temperature where ni>>p

p  ni
the slope of log(p) versus 1/T plot gives an activation energy of either EA or EA /2, depending on
whether there is a compensating donor density in the material or not

• At higher temperatures, typically room temperature, the net majority carrier density is obtained
with zero activation energy. At still higher temperatures the activation energy is that of ni
OPTICAL TECHNIQUES : PLASMA RESONANCE
• The optical reflection coefficient of semiconductor given by
𝑛−1 2 +𝑘 2
R= 2 +𝑘 2
𝑛+1

Where n is refractive index

k= /4 is extinction coefficient with  the absorption coefficient and  the photon
wavelength.

• R approaches unity when the photon frequency , related to the wavelength through the relation
 = c/ , approaches the plasma resonance frequency p . The plasma resonance wavelength p is
given by
p = 2 c/q * (km*/p)^1/2
• Where p is free carrier density in semiconductor
m* is effective mass

• The plasma resonance wavelength is difficult to determine because it is not well defined. It
is for this reason that the carrier density is determined not from the plasma resonance
wavelength but from the wavelength min at the reflectivity minimum, where min < p.
• The minimum wavelength is related to the carrier density through the empirical relationship
p=(A min+C)B
Where A,B,C are constant

• This technique is useful only for carrier density higher then 1018 to 1019 cm-3
CASE STUDY
DOPING
DENSIT Y
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRENT & DOPING DENSITY
• For shallow donors
n0=Nd
• For shallow acceptors
p0=Na

• If shallow donors & acceptors both are

present then
 For N-type region
n0 = Nd – Na
 For P-type region
p0 = Na – Nd
DOPING DENSITY MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
• Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
• Photoluminescence Imaging
• Free carrier absorption
• Infrared spectroscopy
1) SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY
ION SOURCE
ENERGY ANALYZER
• It measures the intensity(counts/sec) of the secondary ion beam

• The measured intensity for a specific target atom is given by

It =IP x Y x [Ct] x Ɣt x T
IP : Primary ion current
Y: Sputtering yield
[Ct]: Concentration of species t
Ɣt : ionization efficiency
T: Instrument transmission function
MASS SPECTROMETER
DETECTOR
MASS SPECTRUM
EXAMPLE
• We have to find P concentration in sample
• From mass spectrum It = 2 x 103 counts/sec
Ip = 9 x 1014 counts/sec
Is = 2 x 1015 counts/sec
Thus, Y = 2.2 atoms/sec
Ɣt = 1

• Thus, [Ct] = It / (Ip x Y x Ɣt )

= 2 x 103 / (9 x 1014 x 2.2 x 1)
= 10-12 atoms/cm3
DEPTH PROFILE

Contd..
SENSITIVITY FACTOR

 It relates intensity to atomic concentration

 It is given by
S = Concentration / ʃ It dx
Where S = Sensitivity factor (known)
It = Intensity of target atom (known)
dx = Depth of penetration of ion beam(known)

Contd…
EXAMPLE
• S = [Ct] / It
= 10-12 / 2 x 103
= 5 x 10-10

• It = Concentration / ( S x dx)
= 1/ (5 x 10-10 x 9310 x 10-8)

• Thus, 1 count/sec = 2 x 1013 atoms/cm3

ION IMAGING
2) PHOTOLUMINESCENCE IMAGING
• A monochromatic light (LASER) whose
intensity can be varied is incident over sample

• Due to radiative recombination of carriers,

photoluminescence(PL) from the sample takes
place

• This PL is captured by charge coupled device

camera which produces a PL image through
which intensity of PL can be found

• A filter is used to eliminate laser illumination

reflected from the sample
RELATION OF PL INTENSITY WITH DOPING
DENSITY
• The measured PL intensity IPL is proportional to the rate of radiative recombination Rrad
IPL = Ai x B x n x p
Where Ai = scaling factor
B = radiative recombination coefficient

• For p-type silicon, Δn << NA

IPL = Ai x B x Δn x NA

• For n-type silicon, Δp<< ND

IPL = Ai x B x Δp x ND

Contd...
• Under steady-state conditions, the excess carrier density Δn is given as
Δn = τeff x G
Where τeff = effective minority carrier lifetime
G = generation rate

• If surface recombination is high and bulk recombination is low, then effective minority carrier
lifetime (τeff) becomes equal to the transit time(average time required for generated carriers to
diffuse to a surface)

• Transit time is given by

τtransit = W2 /(12 x Dn) ( For P-type)
where W = sample thickness
Dn = minority carrier (electron) diffusivity

Contd…
• IPL = Ai x B x NA x G ·x W2 /(12 x Dn) ∞ NA x W2 /(12 x Dn)

• The electron diffusivity Dn is weakly dependent on doping concentration

Thus, IPL ∞ NA

• Example:
Let IPL = 100 photons/s-1
W = 200 x 10-4 cm
Dn = 30 cm/s
Using (2),we get
NA = 9 x 107

Contd…
• Simulations of detected PL intensity can
be obtained with QSS Model simulation
software

• The simulation result reveals a near linear

relationship between the PL intensity and
dopant density

• IPL ∞ NA 1.1