Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Spring 2015
Week #13
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Microgrids could have a grid interconnection to
• Improve system economics
• Improve operation
• Improve availability
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• More potential issues with microgrids integration into the main grid:
• Safety: When there is a fault in the grid, power from the
microgrid into the grid should be interrupted (islanding)
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Example of microgrid development. Initial condition.
• Equipment and
financial planning is
done with all the load
in the figure in mind.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Example of microgrid development. Planning issues. A microgrid is installed few years
later.
Transformers
and
conductors
can now be
oversized
(remember
this aspect
for PEV and
PHEV
integration)
Microgrid’s area
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Example of microgrid development. Initial normal power flow direction
Directional
Relay
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Example of microgrid operational issues. New power flow with a microgrid.
• The microgrid’s
power trips open the
directional relay
• Is it possible to
change the grid’s
state fast enough to
prevent voltage
collapse due to loss
of stability caused by Directional
the sudden load Relay • What microgrid’s
changes introduced control action
by the microgrid? follows?
• Can the microgrid
stop injecting power
back into the grid
(i.e. prevents
islanding)?
Microgrid’s area
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Example of microgrid operation. Islanding.
• If islanding occurs
the microgrid will
continue to provide
power to a portion of
the grid even though
the grid connection
upstream has been
interrupted.
CERTS microgrid (ac) NTT Facilities Sendai project (ac and dc)
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• dc microgrids integration with the grid
• The interface may or may not allow for bidirectional power flow.
Bidirectional power flow can be needed for:
•`Energy storage
• dc loads
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Smart grids
• There are two similar but not equal approaches to the smart grid
concept.
- Motivated by needs in
availability improvements
“The NETL Modern Grid Initiative A VISION FOR THE MODERN GRID”, US DOE
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
The smart grid concept
• There are many views of what is In reality, a smart grid is not a single
concept but rather a combination of technologies and methods intended
to modernize the existing grid in order to improve flexibility, availability,
energy efficiency, and costs.
• Centralized
operation and control
• Passive
transmission and
distribution.
• Lack of flexibility
• Vulnerable
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Smart grid evolution:
Present/immediate future
• Still primarily centralized
control.
• Limited active distribution
network (distributed local
generation and storage). Use
of virtual storage (demand-
response)
• Addition of communication
systems
• More efficient loads
• Flexibility issues
• Distributed operation
and control
• Active distribution
network (distributed local
generation and storage).
• Integrated
communications
• Advanced more efficient
loads
• Flexible
• More robust
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Smart grids
• Technologies and concepts:
• Distributed energy resources (generation and storage) are
fundamental parts. They provide the necessary active characteristics
to an otherwise passive grid.
• Intelligent metering.
• Grid modernization.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
The Power-Net
• DOE view for a smart grid:
- “An electrical grid is a network of
technologies that delivers
electricity from power plants to
consumers in their homes and
offices.”
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
The Power-Net
• Like the Internet, the Power-Net
involves diverse and redundant
path for the power to flow from
distributed generators to users.
Its control resides in autonomous
distributed agents.
• Power is generated in distributed
generators, usually from
alternative or renewable energy
sources. Power buffers are
included to match generators
and loads dynamics. Energy
buffers are added to make
variable sources dispatchable.
• Contrary to the Internet, the
Power-Net involves a local
approach for power interactions.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
The
• Desired Internet features: Internet
• distributed and autonomous control,
• diverse information routing and redundant data or application
storage,
• performance degradation instead of full failure,
• link transmission rate control through temporary data storage
in buffers.
M = B.T
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Extending the Internet into
Smart grids
• Key aspect: add distributed generation (fuel cells, microturbines, PV
modules, small wind, reciprocating engines) close to the load to make
power grids distribution portion an active electric circuit.
W = P.T
Ultracapacitors
or flywheels
(power buffer)
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Control and communication issues
• Coordination is needed in order to integrate variable generation sources (such
as PV modules) in the grid.
• Centralized control requires significant communication resources (i.e., large
bandwidth spectrum allocation) which in general is not available.
• The alternative is to provide all active nodes with an autonomous control that
allows controlling power interactions with the grid without dedicated
communication links. These more intelligent nodes become agents.
VS.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Power Supply Resilience
• In the past, several issues were identified in conventional power grids
that affect their availability, particularly during natural disasters.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Power Supply Resilience
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Advanced Power Architectures
Power routers
Monitoring points
Grid-Microgrids
Interconnection
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Motivation
• Reasons for connecting a microgrid to a main grid:
• Availability: Highly available power grids may act as an additional
source for micro-grids.
• Operations/stability:
•Direct connection of ac microgrids to a large power grid
facilitates stable operation but only if the power grid acts as a
“stiff” source to the microgrid.
• When using renewable energy sources, a grid connection may
allow reducing the need for energy storage in the microgrid.
• If not all loads in a microgrid are critical, a grid connection may
allow to reduce the investment in local generation.
• Economics:
• Microgrids are typically planned with extra capacity with respect
to the local load. This extra power capacity can be injected back
into the grid in order to obtain some economic benefit.
• Grid interconnection allows to reduce fuel operational costs by
using the grid at night when electricity costs are low.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Definitions
• Point of common coupling (PCC): it is the point in the electric circuit
where a microgrid is connected to a main grid.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Standards
• There are several standards specifying various aspects grid
interconnection of a local power generation source. Arguably the most
important one is IEEE 1547.
• IEEE 1547 has several parts:
• Main body
• IEEE Standard 1547.1 “IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.”
• EEE Standard 1547.2 “IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547™, IEEE Standard for
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.3 “IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of
Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.4 “IEEE Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed
Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.5 has not been issued, yet. Its intended scope is to address issues
when interconnecting electric power sources of more than 10 MVA to the power grid.
• IEEE Standard 1547.6 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems Distribution Secondary Networks.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.8 has not been issued, yet. Its intended scope is to provide
supplemental support for implementation methods for expanded use of the previous
standards, for example when addressing issues with high penetration of residential PV
systems.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Standards
• Main provisions from IEEE 1547:
• The micro-grid must “not actively regulate the voltage at the PCC.”
• The grounding approach chosen for the local area power and energy system (LAPES) must
not create overvoltages that exceed the ratings of the equipment connected to the main grid or
must not affect ground fault protection coordination in the main grid.
• The distributed resources in the LAPES must be able to parallel with the main grid “without
causing voltage fluctuations at the PCC greater than ±5% of the prevailing voltage level of the
Area electric power system (EPS) at the PCC” and flicker must be within acceptable ranges.
• The LAPES must not energized the main grid when the main grid is not energized.
• Each distributed resource (DR) “unit of 250 kVA or more or DR aggregate of 250 kVA or more
at a single PCC shall have provisions for monitoring its connection status, real power output,
reactive power output, and voltage at the point of DR connection.”
• A visible-break isolation device must be located between the main grid and a DR unit only
when required by the main grid provider practices.
• The interconnection system must meet applicable surge and EMI standards.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Standards
• Main provisions from IEEE 1547:
• When a fault occurs in the main grid circuit to which a LAPES is connected, then the micro-
grid local power generation units must stop to power this circuit before reclosure from the main
grid happens.
• The interconnection system must be able to measure relevant indicated voltages and
frequencies at the PCC or the point of connection of DR and disconnect within a given allowed
time all local power generating units in the micro-grid when these measured voltages or
frequencies fall within a range specified in a table in this standard. For example, when
voltages fall below 50 % of the base voltage, the LAPES must disconnect its DR within 0.16
seconds (one 60 Hz cycle). The time extends to 2 seconds for voltages between 50 and 88 %
of the base voltage. Disconnection must occur within 1 second if measured voltages are
between 110 and 120 % of the base voltage and within 0.16 seconds if the voltage exceeds
120 % of the base voltage. For frequency measurements, any DR of 30 kW or less must
disconnect 0.16 seconds if the measured frequency is above 60.5 Hz or below 59.3 Hz. The
same disconnect time applies for DR of more than 30 kW when the frequency exceeds 60.5
Hz, but for the lower range at these power levels disconnect within 0.16 seconds must occur if
the frequency falls below 57 Hz, whereas disconnection is adjustable between 0.16 and 300
Hz if the frequency falls between 59.8 and 57 Hz.
• Reconnection of a LAPES to a main grid may occur at least 5 minutes after voltages and
frequency fall within indicated required ranges.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Standards
• Main provisions from IEEE 1547:
• Reconnection of a LAPES to a main grid may occur at least 5 minutes after voltages and
frequency fall within indicated required ranges.
• A microgrid must “not inject dc current greater than 0.5% of the full rated output current” at
the PCC.
• Harmonic current injection by the LAPES into the main grid measured at the PCC must not
exceed certain levels both in total and for given harmonic order ranges. The total demand
distortion must not be more than 5 % of the local main grid “maximum load current integrated
demand (15 or 30 minutes) without the DR unit, or the DR unit rated current capacity,”
whatever is greater. Base of this same base current, harmonic content for harmonics with an
odd order below 11 must not exceed 4 %. If the odd harmonic order is between 11 and 17 the
limit is 2 %, whereas this limit falls to 1.5 % for odd harmonics with an order between 17 and
23 and 0.6 % for odd harmonics with an order between 23 and 35. For odd harmonics with an
order above 35, the harmonic content with respect to the indicated current must not exceed
0.3 %. For even harmonics their content limits are a quarter of those indicated for the odd
harmonic orders.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Standards
• Other important provisions from IEEE 1547.6 about network
protections (NP) on the grid’s side:
• The presence of DR should not:
- “prevent or delay the NP from opening for faults on the network feeders.”
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Interconnection methods:
• Directly through switchgear
• Power electronic interfaces
• Static switches
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Directly through circuit breakers:
• Example of one of such systems:
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Use of static switches:
• They are costlier and more complex than using circuit breakers.
• Usually, conventional circuit breakers are still used to provide a
way to achieve full galvanic isolation. A Bypass switch is also added
for maintenance reasons.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Use of static switches:
• They allow for many open/close operations
• They act much faster than conventional circuit breakers (in the
order of half a cycle to a cycle). Sometimes IGBTs are used instead
of SCR because IGBTs tend to be faster than SCRs and their
current is inherently limited.
• Still power flow cannot be controlled.
• There are some conduction losses in the devices.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Power electronic interfaces:
• It is the costlier option but it is also the most flexible one.
• Allow for power distribution architecture characteristics on both
sides of the PCC to be completely different.
• Both real and reactive power flow can be controlled.
• Reaction times to connection or disconnection commands are
similar to those provided by static switches, although in the case of a
power electronic circuit, it response also depends on its dynamic
performance, given by its controller, topology, and internal energy
storage components characteristics.
• Still, in many cases, a circuit breaker will still be required at the
grid-side terminal of the power electronic interface with a microgrid
in order to provide a way to physically disconnect the micro-grid from
the grid.
• Also, similarly to static switches, the presence of a power
electronic circuit will lead to some power losses not found in the
approach using mechanical interfaces.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Islanding
• In IEEE Standard 1547.4 an intentional island is said to be the result
of “intentional events for which the time and duration of the planned
island are agreed upon by all parties involved.”
• There are several reasons why intentional island operation of a micro-
grid may occur, but a common one is a preemptive disconnection from
the grid in anticipation of a power outage on the main grid side caused
by an event that can be anticipated, such as an incoming hurricane or
storm, or wildfires. The advantage of this intentional islanding operation
instead of waiting for the outage in the main grid to occur in order to
switch the microgrid to operate in islanding mode is that an intentional
islanding allows for a controlled transition that prevents potential failures
or quality issues in the micro-grid.
• Two phases can be distinguished in islanded operation:
• transition from grid connected to island operation
• operation isolated from the grid.
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Islanding
• During the transition into island operation it is important that:
• voltage disturbances are quickly dampened and that protection
schemes both inside the microgrid and in the grid are not affected.