Formation of

Pharmacologically – Active
Compounds in Plants –
Biosynthesis:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Prepared by:
Michelle Torre-Onoza, RPh
 INTRODUCTION
Virtually all energy on earth comes from
sunlight. Plants use energy from the
sun to make the bonds which hold
organic molecules together. When
these bonds are broken, the energy is
ultimately transferred to ATP, which is
then moved about cells and organisms
to power their needs. Since these
molecules are synthesized from the
energy in sunlight the process is called
photosynthesis.
 PHOTOSYNTESIS
- is a light – driven series of chemical
reactions that convert the energy – poor
compound, carbon dioxide (CO2), to
energy-rich sugars. In plants,
photosynthesis also splits water and
releases oxygen (O2). Over time, the
oxygen released by photosynthesis has
dramatically changed the earth’s
atmosphere and enabled the evolution
of aerobic respiration in animals and
other organisms.
 PHOTOSYNTESIS
Today, as in the past, virtually all life
depends on photosynthesis, which can
be summarized with the following
general equation:
light

CO2 H2O sugars O2

chlorophyll

3CO2 + 6H20----- light -----> C3H6O3 + 3O2+ 3H20

 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Since organic molecules contain carbon, a
supply of carbon is needed for this
process; it comes from carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. Note the starting products
are water, which supplies the electrons,
and carbon dioxide, which provides the
carbon. The end products are oxygen, a
triose (two combined make glucose) and
water.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(Electricity, one of our most common
energy sources, consists of a flow of
electrons. During photosynthesis the
sun's energy is used to split water
molecules, starting a flow of
electrons. The energy from this flow
of electrons is harnessed and used to
make the bonds in organic
molecules.)
 Photosynthetic Organism Are
Autotrophs
The original organism on earth were
probably heterotrophs that formed organic
compounds from other energy-rich organic
compounds they absorbed and digested.
Heterotrophs released CO2. About 3
billion years ago, photosynthetic
organisms, rather than relying on the ever-
dwindling amount of primeval broth for
energy, began to use sunlight as an
energy source.
 Photosynthetic Organism Are
Autotrophs
These organisms were the earth’s first
photosynthetic autotrophs – that is,
organisms that use light energy to make
organic compounds from inorganic
compounds such as water and CO2. All of
the oxygen in air that we breathe was
produced by photosynthesis. The oxygen
allowed the evolution of aerobic respiration
and the higher life-forms we are familiar
with now.
 What is Light?
Virtually all life depends on
light, which powers
photosynthesis. Light
energy is contained in
packets called photons.
The energy of a photon is
inversely proportional to the
wavelength of the light: the
longer the wavelength, the
less energy per photon.
Sunlight consists of a
spectrum of colors of light
having different
wavelengths and energy.
 Pigments Absorbs Light, Which
Drives Photosynthesis

Light is absorbed by pigments. Chlorophyll

is the primary pigment for photosynthesis
in plants. Accessory pigments such as
carotenoids absorb light that chlorophylls
cannot absorb, thereby extending the
range of light useful for photosynthesis
 Pigments
These are complex, organic molecules that
absorbs light, which appear colored
because they also reflect light. For
instance, black pigments absorb all
wavelengths of light, while white pigments
absorb no wavelengths of light. Green
pigments absorb all the colors except
green, which is reflected back to aour
eyes.
 Pigments
Many kinds of pigments are
similar but have different
functions. For example,
Chlorophyll pigments are
made of four smaller
rings (a tetrapyrrol), each
of which consists of four
carbons and one
nitrogen. The four rings
are linked by bridges that
sequester a metal atom.
 Pigments

If the metal is iron, the pigment is a

heme, such as in hemoglobin
found in your red blood cells. If
the metal is magnesium, the
pigments are chlorophyll – the
primary green pigments of
photosynthesis.
 Chlorophylls
- Are hydrophobic (“water-
hating”) pigments that
occur in plants, algae,
and all but one primitive
group of photosynthetic
bacteria. It absorbs light
maximally at
wavelengths of 400 to
500 nm (violet-blue)
and 600 to 700 nm
(orange-red)
 Types of Chlorophyll
1. Chlorophyll a – the primary
photosynthetic pigment and most
important. It is a grass-green
pigment whose structure includes
anatom of magnesium (Mg). It
occurs in all photosynthetic
organisms except photosynthetic
bacteria and absorbs light maximally
at 430 and 662 nm.
 Chlorophyll a

The relationship
of light
absorption by
chlorophyll a
versus
wavelengths.
 Types of Chlorophyll
2. Chlorophyll b – is a bluish green
pigment that absorbs maximally at
453 and 642 nm. It occurs in all
plants, green algae, and some
prokaryotes. Plants usually contain
about half as much as chlorophyll b
as chlorophyll a.
 Types of Chlorophyll
3. Plants also contain a rainbow of other
pigments that are often called accessory
pigments.
a. carotenoids – the most common
accessory pigments in plants, which occur
in all photosynthetic organism.
- absorb maximally at
wavelengths between 460 and 550 nm;
therefore, these pigments are red, orange,
and yellow. Eg. Beta – carotene ( reddish
yellow pigment): 2 molecules of Vitamin A
 Types of Chlorophyll
b. Xanthophylls (oxidizing
carotenes) – are red and yellow pigments
in tomatoes, carrots, leaves, algae and
photosynthetic bacteria. It is less efficient
at transferring energy during
photosynthesis than are carotenoids.

c. Phycobilins – pigments found in

cyanobacteria and some other red algae.
 Photosynthesis Requires Both
Photochemical and Biochemical Reactions
to Produce Sugars.
Photosynthesis consists of
photochemical and biochemical
reactions, called the light reactions
and the Calvin cycle, respectively.
The photochemical reactions convert
light energy to chemical energy: ATP
and NADPH.
Photosynthesis Requires Both Photochemical and
Biochemical Reactions to Produce Sugars.

The biochemical reactions use the ATP and

NADPH produced by the photochemical
reactions to reduce CO2 to sugars. The
photochemical reactions occur in thylakoid
membranes, whereas the biochemical
reactions occur in the stroma. Pi is
inorganic phosphate.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants

 Photosynthesis in eukaryotes occurs

in chloroplasts where light energy is used
to power the synthesis of ATP and
NADPH. These chemical forms of energy
are used during the Calvin Cycle to
reduce (fix) CO2 to sugars
(carbohydrate). The initial fixation of CO2
is catalyzed by an enzyme called ribulose
biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase
(rubisco).
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 Trios-P is the primary sugar molecule
moved from a chloroplast to the cytosol
where it is used to make sucrose, the
transportable form of energy and carbon
from photosynthesis. Excess trios-P is
stored as starch in an illuminated
chloroplast. The primary function of
photosynthesis is to provide energy and
carbon sufficient to support maintenance
and growth not only for photosynthetic
tissues but of the plant as a whole.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
Photorespiration occurs in plants when the
internal concentration of CO2 becomes low,
such as when stomata close during drought.
During photorespiration, rubisco fixes O2 instead
of CO2, and CO2 from previous carbon fixation
is later released. Consequently, photorespiration
undoes photosynthesis: as much as half of the
carbon fixed in the Calvin cycle is released by
photorespiration, especially during hot, dry days.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants

Chloroplast are usually shaped like

footballs, with a diameter of 5 to 10
micrometers and a depth of 3 to 4
micrometers. Most photosynthetic cells
have 40 to 200 chloroplasts, which
amounts to about 500,000 chloroplasts per
sq mm of a leaf area.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 Each chloroplast is
surrounded by two
membranes that enclose a
gelatinous matrix called
stroma. The stroma
contains ribosomes, DNA,
and enzymes that make
the sugars produced by
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 Suspended in the stroma are
neatly folded sacs of
membranes called
thylakoids, which are
membranes unique to
chloroplasts. In some parts
of chloroplasts,10 to 20
thylakoids are stacked into
grana. Thylakoids contain
the chlorophylls and
accessory pigments and are
where light is absorbed
during photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 In all but the most primitive
photosynthetic bacteria,
light is captured by a
network of chloroplast
pigments and associated
molecules arranged in
thylakoids. These
networks, called antennae
complexes, consist of
proteins, about 300
molecules of chlorophyll a,
and about 50 molecules of
carotenoids and other
accessory pigments that
gather light.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 Energy absorbed by
antennae complexes
flows energetically
“downhill” to a
chemically unique and
special energy-
collecting molecule of
chlorophyll a and
associated proteins
called a reaction
center.
Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis
in Plants
 This model shows as
“light funnel” directing
photons to the reaction
center, which contains a
special chlorophyll a. The
special chlorophyll a in
the reaction center is the
electron acceptor that
participates directly in
photosynthesis; all other
photosynthetic pigments
function as antennae that
funnel the light energy to
chlorophyll a of the
reaction center.
Two Kinds of Reaction Center Chlorophyll a
molecules

1. Photosystem I (PS I) – absorbs

maximally at 700 nm and is
called P700 (for pigment 700); it
contains several pigments and
proteins along with the reaction
center chlorophyll a.
Two Kinds of Reaction Center Chlorophyll a
molecules

2. Photosystem II (PSII) – appears

identical to that of PS I, but it is
associated with different proteins. The
associated with different proteins. The
associated proteins in PS II shift the
maximal absorption to about 680 m;
thus the reaction center in PS II is
called P680.
 Two Kinds of Reaction Center Chlorophyll a
molecules
When light is absorbed
during photosynthesis,
the energy of its photons
is captured by the
pigment and passed to a
neighboring molecules in
PS I or in PS II reaction
centers, resulting in a
flow of electrons through
a thylakoid membrane
between the two
photosystems.
Two Kinds of Reaction Center Chlorophyll a
molecules

The electrons come from water (H2O),

which during PS II, is split into
Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The
O2 is released as a gas from a
chloroplast and then he leaf. The H2
from water can ultimately become
part of the sugars produced by
photosynthesis.
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis produced ATP
 Chloroplasts couple the light-driven
flow of electrons between the two
photosystems (PS I, PS II) in the
thylakoid membrane to the processes that
make ATP. The light-dependent
production of ATP in a chloroplast is
called photophosphorylation because
light provides the enrgy for addition of a
phosphate (Pi) to ADP, makng ATP:
ADP + Pi (light) → ATP + H2O
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis produced ATP
 The process that directly powers ATP
synthesis is the light activated
accumulation of protons on one side of
the thylakoid membrane. The flow of
electrons drives the accumulation of
protons. The resulting high concentration
of protons creates a kind of chemical
pressure against the membrane that
when released, as protons flow back
through the membrane, provides the
energy to synthesize ATP.
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis produced ATP
 In a chloroplast, the energy escaping
protons drives the synthesis of ATP. The
ATP produced is released into the
stroma, where it is used to make sugars
from CO2. In addition, the flow of
electrons results in the production of
another energy-carrying molecule,
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate, NADPH.
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis also produce
 NADPH.
The same flow of electrons that drives
ATP synthesis in a chloroplast is used to
produce this second energy-carrying
compound by supplying electrons and
protons (H+) to convert NADP+ to
NADPH. These events, leading to ATP
and NADPH in illuminated chloroplasts,
comprise the light reactions of
photosynthesis.
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis also produce
NADPH.
 The ecological significance of the light
reactions is:

1. The conversion of light energy to

chemical energy (ATP and NADPH) ; and
2. The release of O2 into the atmosphere.
 The light reactions of
photosynthesis also produce
NADPH.
 Boththe ATP and NADPH, which
can be considered the chemical
energy converted from light energy,
are necessary in plant chloroplasts to
form the sugars produced by
photosynthesis.
The biochemical reactions convert
CO2 to carbohydrates

 The biochemical reactions associated

with photosynthesis, including the Calvin
cycle, convert atmospheric CO2 to
carbohydrates, primarily sucrose and
starch. These carbohydrates can be
considered transport and storage depots
of chemical energy and carbon.
The biochemical reactions convert
CO2 to carbohydrates
 Conversion of CO2 to sugars is
called carbon fixation ---- that is,
the carbon is fixed in organic form.
The carbon fixed during
photosynthesis is ultimately used to
make all of the organic molecules of
the plant and, subsequently, of
organisms that feed on the plant in
an ecosystem.
The biochemical reactions convert
CO2 to carbohydrates
 The cycle of biochemical reactions
that fix and assemble CO2 is called
Calvin Cycle (by Melvin Calvin and
his co-workers). The carbon fixation
reactions are also known as the
photosynthetic carbon reduction
cycle.
Rubisco is not perfect and fuels
carbon loss via photorespiration
 All of the CO2 is available to a
plant only when the plant’s stomata
are open. As long as the plant has
plenty of water, this is not a serious
problem, but on hot, dry days,
stomata close, at least partially,
conserving water..
Rubisco is not perfect and fuels
carbon loss via photorespiration
When this occurs, the continued
fixation of CO2 (via rubisco and the
Calvin cycle) in the light decreases
the concentration of CO2 inside the
leaf, which greatly increases the
relative amount of O2.
Rubisco is not perfect and fuels
carbon loss via photorespiration
 Remember that rubisco is ribulose-1,5-
biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase,
and it can combine either CO2 or O2 with
RuBP. The products of oxygenase
reaction, where O2 is attached to RuBP
(a five-carbon compound) and PGA
(three-carbon compound):
O2 + RuBP ----- rubisco → phosphoglycolate + PGA
Rubisco is not perfect and fuels
carbon loss via photorespiration
 The reactions initiated by rubisco’s
fixation of oxygen rather than CO2
are collectively called
photorespiration because they
occur only in light, consume oxygen,
and release CO2.
C4 Photosynthesis Employs Two CO2 Fixation
Steps and Probably Evolved During Times of
Low CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere
 C4 photosynthesis occurs in many
plant species and fixes CO2 into
four-carbon acid (malic acid or
malate) in mesophyll cells. This acid
then moves to bundle-sheath cells,
where it is broken down to CO2 and
a three-carbon molecule.
C4 Photosynthesis Employs Two CO2 Fixation
Steps and Probably Evolved During Times of
Low CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere
 In bundle-sheath cells, the CO2
is fixed by rubisco and the Calvin
cycle. This pumping of CO2 into
bundle-sheath cells eliminates
photorespiration,
C4 Photosynthesis Employs Two CO2 Fixation
Steps and Probably Evolved During Times of
Low CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere
 which often makes C4 plants more
efficient than C3 plants, especially
during hot, dry conditions. The
evolution of C4 photosynthesis
provides a classic example of natural
selection.
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) is the Third
Main Type of Photosynthesis Known and Probably
Evolved in Arid Ecosystems.

 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

occurs in some plants that live in
extremely dry habitats. CAM plants fix
CO2 at night into a four-carbon acid that
is stored in the vacuole until daylight
when the acid is split and the CO2 is
used in the Calvin cycle. Fixation of CO2
at night (when the humidity increases)
helps CAM plants conserve water.
What Environmental Factors Affect
the Rates of Photosynthesis?

 The primary environmental

factors that control
photosynthesis are temperature,
water availability, light, the
concentration of CO2 and
metabolic sinks
What Happens to the Products of the
Calvin Cycle?
The products of the Calvin cycle
(photosynthate) have many fates:
Trios-P is often stockpiled as dense
granules of starch. Later, when
needed, starch can be broken down
into simple sugars and used for
making other compounds in a cell.
What Happens to the Products of the
Calvin Cycle?
 A small amount of the trios-P is used to
make amino acids in a chloroplast.
 Much of the trios-P moves from a
chloroplast and is used to make sucrose
in the cytosol. Here sucrose may be
metabolized for energy, stored in a
vacuole, or converted to starch.
What Happens to the Products of the
Calvin Cycle?
 About half of all sucrose is used as fuel
for cellular respiration, while the other
half is used to make cellulose and
other cell-wall components.
 Plants use some of their photosynthate
to make secondary metabolites, such
as latex.
What Happens to the Products of the
Calvin Cycle?
 We use photosynthate of corn to make
almost 90% of the ethanol used in the
US, some of which is mixed with
gasoline to make gasohol.
 Every year, photosynthesis produces
about 1.5 billion tons of grains, the
staple of the world’s diet.
What Happens to the Products of the
Calvin Cycle?
No process can match the
importance or magnitude of
photosynthesis. It sustains virtually
all life on earth. Without
photosynthesis, all other biological
reactions would be irrelevant.
 SUMMARY
 The three photosynthetic
mechanisms known in nature are
C3, C4, and CAM. Accordingly,
plants with these mechanisms
are known as C3, C4, or CAM
plants. The Calvin cycle operates
in each type of plant.
THANK YOU

THE END