Exploring how things work in particular

contexts
Review
Last week we learned that qualitative
research looked at:

 wide dimensions of the social world

 texture and weave of everyday life
 beliefs, understandings, meaning experiences and
imaginings of participants
 richness, depth, nuance, context, multi-
dimensionality and complexity
 Interpretative, relative, contextual.
 Learning outcomes
At the end of this session you will:

 Be familiar with the key components of qualitative

research methods

 Be aware of a number of schools of thoughts related to

qualitative research

 Begin to understand sampling methods and methods for

generating qualitative data.
Origins of Qualitative Research
 scepticism about objectivity of knowledge (facts)
 awareness of the tentative nature of knowledge
(interpretations).
 there is not a single ‘true’ account of any event,
 there are ‘multiple realities’ constructed by
individuals.
Qualitative Research
 Wide range of intellectual and disciplinary traditions
 e.g. phenomenology, ethnography, action research,
case study, life history, emancipatory, feminist,
practitioner research
 unlike quantitative research, it is not a single set of
unified techniques or philosophies.
Common aspects of qualitative research

 Discovery of meanings
 Enquiry focused on the interpreted experiences of
individuals or groups
 The world is viewed in a pluralistic manner
 Humans are seen as having a consciousness and thus
can not be reduced to component parts in order to be
studied
Characteristics of qualitative
research methods

 methods are flexible and sensitive to the social context

in which data are produced

 often described as ‘naturalistic’, researching ‘real

people’ in ‘real settings’.
Research approach Primary focus Main data generation Researcher involvement
methods

Phenomenology The essence of an Participant Reporter, detachment

experience for an observation, field in analysis aiming to
individual or group. work, interviews accurately describe the
The only person to experience of the
truly understand a individual
phenomena is the one
who has experienced it

Ethnography Shared meanings, Participant Aiming to interpret

behaviours, the observation, field data from a cultural
culture of a group or work, interviews perspective
sub-group.
Cultures are
constructed and shared
through interactions
Research approach Primary focus Main data generation Researcher involvement
methods

Ethnomethodology The everyday, In-depth interviews, Aiming to interpret

common sense, the participant observation data from a cultural
norms of a particular perspective, may
social group. directly interfere with
Knowledge is situation to elicit
constructed and shared reactions
through interactions

Grounded theory Analysis, the aim No “fixed forms”. The Analysis occurring
being to generate focus is on through out data
concepts, constructs methodological collection. The
and theory. features such as research process is
No epistemological constant comparison, directed by the
alignment focus being coding paradigm and researcher
on methodology conceptual density
Position of the Researcher
 researcher acknowledged as influencing research
process

Therefore……
 an intensely reflexive process ensues to ascertain:
 active engagement in identifying key issues,
 working out how they might be resolved,
 understanding the intellectual, practical, moral and
political implications
Potential Influence upon
Participants

 participating may have a profound influence on the

behaviour and perceptions of the participants

 utilised in emancipatory research

 seeks to enable to participants to better understand and
influence their own situation
Generating Qualitative Data
Important to consider :-

 the potential sources of data available

 the methods for generating data

 the context(s) in which the data may be

generated
Data Sources
 People - individuals, groups or collectives
 Organisations, institutions, and entities
 Texts - published and unpublished sources including
virtual ones
 Objects, artefacts, media products (material,
visual/sensory, virtual)
 Events and happenings
Evaluating and using data sources

 all sources of data need to be evaluated in relation to

the research question
 what data sources exist?
 where might they be found?
 what range of experience is required of participants?
 have relevant documents been produced?
Evaluating and using data sources
 important to consider the ethics of using certain
sources
 how sensitive is the data required?
 is it ethical to access private diaries or letters?
 how might the participants be affected by exploring the
issues?
 how might participants be affected by publication of the
findings?
 who has ownership and control of the data?
Methods for Generating Data
 do not simply work out where to find data which
already exist.
 you work out how best to generate data from your
chosen sources.
 Method is not focused on collection
 it is a process involving intellectual, analytical and
interpretive activities.
Check lists?

 “Thinking qualitatively means rejecting the idea of a

research design as a single document which is entire
advance blue print for a piece of research. It also
means rejecting the idea of a priori strategic and
design decisions or that such decisions can and should
be made at the beginning of the research process.”
(Mason, 2002, p. 24)
Methods for Generating Data
 Those most commonly used in qualitative research
are:-
 Interviewing

 Observing and Participating

 Using Documents and Visual Sources (photographs,

film)
Qualitative Interviewing
 comprises in-depth, semi-structured or loosely
structured forms of interviewing
 (open ended questions within an otherwise structured
interview schedule are derived from survey, not
qualitative, methodology)
Common features of qualitative
interviewing
 Interactional exchange of dialogue

 Informal style, conversation or discussion not question

and answer

 Thematic, topic centred, biographical or narrative

 fluid and flexible allowing development of unexpected

themes
Common features of qualitative
interviewing

 relevant contexts to ensure situated knowledge

 Involves construction and reconstruction of
knowledge
 ‘Qualitative interviewing is hard, creative, active work’
(Holstein & Gubrium, 1995)
 Social task - to orchestrate an interaction
 Intellectual task – assess relevance
Observing and Participating
 used in research that sees interactions, actions and
behaviours as central
 researcher immersed in a research ‘setting’
 experiences and absorbs first hand
 ‘participant observation’ - varying degrees of
participation and observation.
 with other methods,
 adds depth, complexity, roundedness and
multidimensionality
Observational Methods

 acknowledge that the presence of a researcher may

change the dynamics of an interaction
 often regarded as ideal for ‘practitioner’ research
 impossible to record every aspect experienced /
observed
 need to ‘find the focus’ for the study
Using Visual Sources and
Documents
 existing contemporary or historical sources, published
and unpublished
 may generate data – video, diaries, chat room
 researcher actively selects data sources in relation to
research question
Using Multiple Methods
 Triangulation
 situations explored from more than one perspective
 deeper and richer explanations developed
 may use
 multiple sources of data
 combinations of methods for data generation
Sampling and Selection in
Qualitative Research
 Sources will belong to or relate to a relevant wider
population

 the sampling strategy links sources meaningfully

 characterised by small scale in depth exploration

Sampling and Selection in
Qualitative Research

Depth of Data

Number of participants
Theoretical or purposive sampling
 constructing a study group which is meaningful
 constructing a sampling frame which relates to the
situations to be explored
 Representational sampling
 Illustrative or Evocative Sampling
Summary
 Qualitative methods vary depending on the schools of
thoughts (e.g. phenomenology, grounded theory,
ethnography)

 Identifying the correct question and the appropriate

method is key to developing a good research design

 Qualitative sampling methods are generally purposeful.

 Data generation includes interviews (In-depth and semi-

structured), observations and visuals.
References
 Holstein, J. and Gubrium, J. (1995) The Active
Interview. London: Sage.
 Mason, J. (2002) Qualitative Researching. 2nd edn.
London: Sage.