A LEVEL

PHYSICS
 INTRODUCTION
 A magnetic field is a region in which a moving charge or a current-
carrying conductor will experience a force when it is placed in it. Hence it
is a field of force.
 Magnetic fields are produced and experienced by moving charges.
Magnetic field will not have any effect on a stationary charge.
 Magnetic fields can be represented by field lines. (or lines of force)
 They show the direction of the magnetic field. (They emerge from the N
pole and enter the S pole)
 The closeness of the lines is an indication of the strength of the field
 Parallel field lines indicate that the field is uniform
 The field lines NEVER cross or touch one another
 The field lines have arrows drawn on each of them
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
When a magnetic compass is
brought near a current carrying
conductor, it shows deflections.
First observed by Hans
Christian Oersted.
Shape and size of the magnetic
field depends on size of the
current and shape of the
conductor.
 MOTOR EFFECT
 If a current carrying conductor is placed between
magnetic poles, the magnetic fields of current carrying
conductor and the magnet would interact with each
other causing a force between them.
 The conductor is held loosely between the poles
and right angles to the field.
 When current is passed, the foil becomes taut
showing force called electro magnetic force.
 This force depends on direction of magnetic field
and current. This is known as motor effect.
 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE
 This rule helps in identifying direction of current,
magnetic field and force.
 When thumb, Index finger and middle finger are held
perpendicular to each other then,
 Thumb indicates FORCE
 Index Finger indicates MAGNETIC FIELD
 Middle Finger indicates DIRECTION OF CURRENT
 EQUATION FOR FORCE
Force ∝ current (I)
Force ∝ Length of wire
Force ∝ sinӨ
Force ∝ ILsinӨ
Force = BILsinӨ

B = Constant – Magnetic
flux density (Depends on
strength of magnet)
 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
 For a long straight conductor at right angles to
magnetic field, it is numerically equal to the
force per unit length of conductor.
BIsin𝝦 = F/L
 SI unit – Tesla(T) = Weber per square meter.
 Tesla – Uniform magnetic flux density which
acts normally to a long straight conductor
carrying a current of 1 ampere cause a force
per unit length of 1 N/m on the conductor.
 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
 Sometimes, BsinӨ is considered as component of the magnetic
flux density which are at right angles to the conductor.
B sinӨ
Current carrying
conductor
Magnetic field 90°
strength (B) Ө

 Tesla is large unit for the measurement of flux density.

 Flux density of earth = 4 lines per sq. inch
= 5 Gauss
= 5 x 10-5 Tesla
 Flux density of UK = 44μT at an angle of 66° with horizontal.
 FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL
CONDUCTORS
When a current carrying conductor is
placed in the field of another current
carrying conductor, it experiences
force according to motor effect.
If the currents are in same direction,
conductors move towards each other.
If the currents are in opposite
direction, conductors move away from
each other.
Force per unit length on each
conductor depends on strength of
current and distance between them.
 GRAPH OF FORCE
AGAINST CURRENT
Gradient F/I = BLsinӨ.
Ө = 90°
F/I = BL
 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE
IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
F = BILsinӨ
If there are ‘n’ charged particles in a length L each carrying
charge ‘q’ which passes a point in the conductor in time ‘t’.
Then,
I = nq/t
Speed of charged particle
v = L/t
L = vt
Substituting in equation (1)
F = (B x n x L x sinӨ) q/t
F = Bnqv sinӨ
∴ Force on a particle of charge ‘q’ moving with speed ‘v’ in
uniform magnetic field of flux density ‘B’ is given by
F = Bqv sinӨ
 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGED
PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
 When charge (q) enters field of flux density ‘B’ with a
velocity ‘v’.
 Speed doesn’t changed but direction particle changes
due to force.
 The force on particle through out remains constant
during the motion in the field.
∴ Particle moves in an arc of circle.
 This force provides centripetal force to move in circle.
F = Bqv sinӨ
Ө = 90°
F = Bqv = mv2/r (Centripetal force)
r = mv/Bq (Radius of the path)
 SPECIFIC CHARGE
 Charge to mass ratio = q/m is called specific charge.
 If charge of the particle is known, then its mass may be
calculated.
q/m = v/Br
 Using fine beam tube, specific charge of electron can be
calculated.
 Path of electrons is made visible by having low
pressure gas in the tube which helped in calculating
the radius of the orbit.
 With known potential difference ‘V’, speed ‘v’ may be
calculated.
eV = (mev2 )/2
 SPECIFIC CHARGE
Magnetic field was provided by a pair of current
carrying conductor coils (Helmholtz coil)
e/me = v/Br = 2eV/B2r2
e/me = 2V/B2r2
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
me = 9.11 x 10-31 Kg
If velocity of the electrons is not normal to magnetic
field.
Path of electron will be helical,
Here, Component of velocity normal to the field gives
circular motion.
Component of velocity in the direction of field and
above component makes helical path.
VELOCITY SELECTION OF CHARGED
PARTICLES
We know,
Fe = qE
Fe = Force due to electric field
q = Charge
E = Electric field strength
If particle is allowed to pass into the field at right
angles with a velocity ‘v’.
The particle will follow parabolic path.
 VELOCITY SELECTOR
If the magnetic field acts in same region, right angles
to the electric field into the page. Then,
Fb = Bqv
Bqv = qE
v = E/B
 VELOCITY SELECTOR
The velocity selector will have the following fields

 An uniform electric field, which is generated

by a positively charged bottom plate and
negatively charged top plate. This will cause
an electric field to form between the plate, that
is pointing in the upwards direction.

 An uniform magnetic field throughout the

space between the two charged plates. The
uniform magnetic field can be directed
inwards (into the paper) or outwards (out of
the paper). In the figure above, the magnetic
field is directed outwards.
 MAGNETIC FIELDS
DUE TO CURRENTS
The magnetic flux density at a distance d from the current carrying
wire is given by:

I is the current through the wire,

d is the distance away from wire
μo is the permeability of free space.

The magnetic flux lines would be further apart when radius increases
as the magnetic field gets weaker further away from the wire.
 HALL EFFECT
Consider a thin slice of a conductor normal to magnetic field

When there is current in the conductor as shown,

A potential difference called HALL VOLTAGE (VH) is developed across
the conductor.
It reaches to a constant vale when force on the charge due to
magnetic field is equal to the force due to electric field.
 HALL EFFECT
From Figure,
Electric Field = VH / d
and FE = q x VH / d
Force due to magnetic field = Bqv
When FE = FB
q x VH / d = Bqv
VH / d = Bv

Current in the conductor slice I = Anvq

A = Area of cross section
n = Number density of charge
carrier (Charge per unit volume)
 HALL EFFECT
A=txd
I = t x d x nvq
V = I / tdnq

Substituting in VH / d = Bv
⇒ VH / d = BI / tdnq
⇒ VH = BI / tnq

Hall voltage depends on

– Material used
– Current in the sample
– Magnetic flux density

For a metal, number density of charge carrier is very high. Hence, VH is low.
For a semiconductor, number density is much reduced. Hence, VH is very high.
A Hall Probe is used to measure Flux density.
 RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE
 Imagine holding the conductor in the right hand
with thumb point in the direction of the current.
The direction of the fingers gives the
direction of the magnetic field.
 RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE
 Hold the coil in the right hand with fingers pointing in the
direction of the current, the thumb gives the direction of the
magnetic field.
 The magnetic north of the coil is the end from which the
lines of magnetic force are emerging.
 SOLENOID
 A solenoid produces a magnetic field similar to that of a permanent
bar magnet.
 The magnetic field within a solenoid is very nearly uniform and are
parallel to each other.
 The direction of the magnetic field can be obtained by the
Corkscrew rule.
 The magnetic flux density at the ends of a solenoid is half that at
the centre.
 HELMHOLTZ COIL
 To setup a Helmholtz coil two similar coils with
radius R are placed in the same distance R.
When the coils are so connected that the current
through the coils flows in the same direction, the
Helmholtz coils produce a region with a nearly
uniform magnetic field
 The magnetic field at center of the coils with N
wire windings is proportional to current through
coils.
 ELECTROMAGNETS
AND THEIR USES
 Strength of the magnetic field due to coil or a solenoid can be increased by
winding the coil on a bar of soft iron.
 Iron is called soft Iron as it can be magnetized and demagnetized easily.
 This iron core can increase the magnetic field up to 1000 times.
 With ferrous alloys(iron alloyed with Cobalt or Nickel) can increase the
field by 104 times.

 USES
 Motors and generators.
 Transformers.
 Relays.
 Electric bells and buzzers.
 Loudspeakers and headphones.
 Actuators such as valves.
 Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs,
hard disks.
 MRI machines
 GRAVITAIONAL FIELD
Vs MAGNETIC FIELD
 Gravitational Fields
 Determined only by the mass ( or mass-energy) of a body.
Charged and uncharged massive particles produce the same
gravitational field.
 Gravitational fields have no polarity at all.
 At large distances, gravitational fields diminish as the inverse
square of distance from their source.
 Gravitational fields can be detected by using anything to
measure a change in velocity.

 Magnetic Fields
 Produced by charged particles in motion, and depend on the
charge and velocity of these particles, but not on their mass.
 Magnetic fields are 'polar' fields with a North and South
polarity.
 Magnetic fields at large distances from their source, decrease
as the inverse cube of the distance.
 We can only detect magnetic fields by using charged particles
to measure their deflection.
 COMPARING ELECTRIC, MAGNETIC
AND GRAVITAIONAL FIELDS
GRAVITAIONAL
FIELD
ELECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
No point source,
SOURCE Point mass Point charge
dipole required
Field intensity n / a because no
M / r2 Q / r2
proportional to point source

Range Long range Short range Short range

Strength Weak Strong Strong

Depends on the
direction of the
motion of a charge
Direction of field Towards center of Towards center of
generating the
lines mass charge
magnetic field lines.
otherwise they go
from north to south.