Chapter 4

SELECTION OF MATERIALS TO RESIST

FAILURE

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 1

 Chapter 4: Goal and objectives
The goal of this chapter is identify the material properties that are
required to resist a given type of loading or service environment.
The different types of materials that are most suited for a given
application are also examined.
The objectives are to:
• Provide an overview of the different engineering materials.
• Identify the properties that are required to resist failure under
mechanical loading and review the different types of materials
that are most suited for resisting such failures.
• Identify the properties that are required to resist failure in hostile
service environments and review the different types of materials
that are most suited for resisting such failures.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 2
 Classification of engineering materials

Engineerin
g
Materials
Metallic Compositesand Nonmetalli
Materials semiconductors c
Materials

Ferrou Non- Composit Semi- Organi Inorgani

s Ferrous e conductors c Non- c Non-
Metals Metalsand Materials metallic metallic
and Alloys
Alloys 3
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag
 Examples of the different classes of materials I

• Ferrous metals and alloys: carbon steels, high strength low alloy
steels, high alloys steels, stainless steels, gray cast irons, nodular cast
irons, etc.

• Non-ferrous metals and alloys: light metals and alloys (Al, Mg and
Ti), Copper and zinc and their alloys (brasses, bronzes, zamak), low
melting point metals and alloys (Pb, Sn, Bi, Sb, Cd, In), precious
metals (Au, Pt, Ag), refractory metals (W, Mo, Ta, Nb), Nickel and
alloys, Superalloys (Fe-Ni-base, Ni-base, Co-base), etc.
•

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 4

Examples of the different classes of materials II
Organic nonmetallic:
• Thermoplastics (polyethylene, polystyrene, vinyls, polypropylene,
ABS, acrylic, nylon, acetals, polycarbonate, fluoroplastics,
polyesters, polyurethane, cellulosics, PEEK, PETE, PMMA),
• Thermosetting plastics (phenolics, epoxy, polyester, silicone, urea,
melamine),
• Elastomers (natural rubber, neoprene, butyl rubber, styrene
butadiene rubber, silicone elastomers),
• Natural materials (wood, cork, bamboo), etc.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 5

Examples of the different classes of materials III
Inorganic nonmetallic materials:
• Refractory ceramics (oxides, carbides and nitrides),
• Whitewares, clay products,
• Glasses (fused silica, soda-lime, lead glasses, borosilicates, glass
ceramics),
• Bricks, stone, concrete, etc.
Composite materials:
• Polymer-matrix composites (CFRP, GFRP, KFRP, CNTRP,
NFRP, laminated composites, sandwich materials),
• Metal matrix composites (SAP, aluminum-graphite composites,
Al-SiC composites, TD nickel), etc.
Semiconductors: single-crystal silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 6
 Considerations in materials selection I
Product shape:
a) sheet, strip, or plate,
b) bar, rod, or wire,
c) tubes,
d) forgings,
e) castings, moldings.
Mechanical properties :
tensile, fatigue, hardness, creep or impact
Physical and chemical properties:
density, thermal and electrical conductivities, thermal
expansion coefficient, and corrosion resistance

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 7

 Considerations in materials selection II
Microstructural considerations:
anisotropy of properties, hardenability of steels, grain size,
and consistency of properties, i.e. absence of segregations
and inclusions.
Processing considerations:
castability, formability, machinability, weldability, and
moldability
Aesthetic qualities and environmental impact.
Cost and availability.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 8

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 9
 Load carrying capacity
Weightlimitations are encounteredin aerospace, transport, construction,
andportable appliances.Theweight of a componentis a function ofits volume
anddensity.
For example, the weightwof a tie rod of cross sectional areaA and length l is:

w = A l ρ = (L/S)l ρ (4.1)

where ρ is the density of the material

Lis the applied tensile load
Sis the working strength of the material(yield strength /factor ofsafety)

Eq. (4.1) showsthat the weight of the tie rod can be minimized by maximizing
the ratio S/ρ (specific strength).
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 10
 Performance indices
• The performance indices can be used for comparing materials.
• The optimum material has the highest index according to the
loading condition.
Table4.2Performanceindices in selection for staticstrength

Cross-section andloadingcondition Performanceindex

Solid cylinderin tensionorcompression S/ρ
Solid cylinderin torsion S2/3/ρ
Solid cylinderin bending S2/3/ρ
Solid rectanglein bending S1/2/
Flat plate in bending ρ
Flat plate underin-planecompression S1/2/
Thin-walledcylindrical pressurevessel ρ
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag S1/2/ρ 11

S/ρ
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 12
 Design example 4.1 – Select a material for a
compression element I
A load of 50 kN is to be supported on a cylindrical compression
element of 200 mm length.
As the compression element has to fit with other parts of the
structure, its diameter should not exceed 20 mm.
Weight limitations are such that the mass of the element should not
exceed 0.25 kg.

Which of the materials given in Table 4.3 is most suited for making
the compression element?

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 13

 Table 4.3 Comparison of compression element materials

Diameter Diameter Mass

Elastic
Strength Specific based on based on based on
Material modulus Remarks
(MPa) gravity strength Buckling a larger dia.
(Gpa)
(mm) (mm) (kg)
Steels
ASTM A675 Grade 45 155 211 7.8 20.3 15.75 Reject (I)
ASTM A675 Grade 80 275 211 7.8 15.2 15.75 0.3 Reject (2)
ASTM 717 Grade 80 550 211 7.8 10.8 15.75 0.3 Reject (2)
Aluminum
AA 2014- T6 420 70.8 2.7 12.3 20.7 Reject (1)
Plastics and composites
Nylon 6/6 84 3.3 1.14 27.5 44.6 Reject (l)
Epoxy-70% glass 2100 62.3 2.11 5.5 21.4 Reject (1)
Epoxy-62% Kevlar 1311 82.8 1.38 7.0 19.9 0.086 Accepted

a
Assuming that the ends of the compression element are not constrained, the Euler formula
can be used to calculate the minimum diameter that will allow safe use of the compresison
member without buckling.
Reject (1) = material is rejected because it violates the limits on diameter.
Reject (2) = material is rejected because it violates the limits on weight.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 14
 Design example 4.1 – Select a material for a
compression element II
Solution:

Table 4.2 shows the calculated diameter of the compression

element when made of different materials.
The diameter is calculated on the basis of strength and on the basis
of buckling.
The larger value for a given material is used to calculate the mass
of the element.

The results in Table 4.3 show that only epoxy-62% Kevlar satisfies
both the diameter and weight limits.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 15
 Selection of materials for stiffness
A beam which is simply supported at both ends suffers maximum deflection (y)
in its middle when subjected to a concentrated central load (L).
The maximum deflection, y, is given by:

y = (L l3)/(48 E I) (4.2)

where l is the length of the beam,

E is Young's modulus of the beam material, and
I is second moment of area of the beam cross section.

The stiffness of a beam may be increased by increasing its second moment ofarea
and/or by selecting a high modulus material for its manufacture.

Elastic moduli of metals are very difficult to change by changing the composition
or heat treatment.
The elastic moduli of composite materials can be changed over a wide range by
changing the volume fraction and orientation of the constituents.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 16
 Table4.5Performanceindicesinselectionforstiffness

Cross-section andloadingcondition Performanceindex

Solidcylinderintensionorcompressionawayfromthebuckling E/ρ
limit
Columnincompressionwithfailurebybuckling E1/2/ρ
Solidcylinderintorsion G1/2/ρ
Simplysupportedbeamofsquarecrosssectioninbending E1/2/
Simplysupportedbeamofrectangularcrosssectioninbending ρ
Flatplateinbending E1/3//ρ
Flatplateunderin-planecompression ρ
Thin-walledcylindricalpressurevessel /ρ/ρ
E1/3

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 17

Table4.4Comparisonof stiffness of selected engineering materials

Modulusof E E1/2 E1/3

Material elasticityE
Densityρ 10 5
10
2

(GPa)
(Mg/m3)   
Steel (carbonandlowalloy) 207 7.825 26.5 5.8 35.1
Aluminumalloys(average) 71 2.7 26.3 9.9 71.2
Magnesiumalloys(average) 40 1.8 22.2 11.1 88.2
Titaniumalloys(average) 120 4.5 26.7 7.7 50.9
Epoxy-73%Eglassfibers 55.9 2.17 25.8 10.9 81.8
Epoxy-70%Sglassfibers 62.3 2.11 29.5 11.8 87.2
Epoxy-63%carbonfibers 158.7 1.61 98.6 24.7 156.1
Epoxy-62%aramidfibers 82.8 1.38 60 20.6 146.6

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 18

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 19
Ta b l e 4 . 6 C o m p a r i s o n o f t o u g h n e s s a n d s t r e n g t h o f s o m e e n g i n e e r i n g m a t e r i a l s

Yield strength Klc K1c/YS

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
(MPa) (ksi) (MPa m ) (ksi in ) (m ) (in )
Steels
Medium-carbon steel 260 37.7 54 49 0.208 1.30
ASTM A533B Q&T 500 72.5 200 182 0.400 2.51
AISI 4340 (T260°C) 1640 238 50 45.8 0.030 0.19
AISI 4340 (T425°C) 1420 206 87.4 80 0.062 0.388
Maraging 300 1730 250 90 82 0.052 0.328
A l u m i n u m alloys
A A 2024- T651 455 66 24 22 0.053 0.333
A A 2024- T3 345 50 44 40 0.128 0.80
A A 7075- T651 495 72 24 22 0.048 0.306
A A 7475- T651 462 67 47 43 0.102 0.642
T i t a n i u m alloys
Ti-6AI-4V 830 120 55 50 0.066 0.417
Ti-6AI-4V -2Sn 1085 155 44 40 0.04 0.258
Ti-6AI-4Mo-2Sn-0.05Si 960 139 45 40 0.047 0.288
Plastics
PMMA 30 4 1 0.9 0.033 0.225
Polycarbonate 63 8.4 3.3 3 0.052 0.357
Ceramics
Reaction-bonded Si,N4 450 63.3 5 4.6 0.011 0.07
A1203 262 36.9 4.5 4.1 0.017 0.11
SiC (self-bonded) 140 19.7 3.7 3.4 0.026 0.173

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 20

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 21
Design example 4.3 - Select a tough light material
for a tie rod I
Aluminum AA7075-T651 and titanium Ti-6Al-4V are being
considered for making a one meter long tie rod that will carry a
tensile load of 50 kN.
If the available NDT equipment can only detect flaws larger than 3
mm in length, which of these two materials can be used to make a
lighter member?

• AA7075: y = 495 MPa, KIC = 24 MPa m1/2 , ρ = 2.7 g/cc

• Ti-6Al-4V: y = 830 MPa, KIC = 60 MPa m1/2, ρ = 4.5 g/cc

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 22

Design example 4.3 - Select a tough light material for
a tie rod II
Answer
f = KIC/[Y ( a)1/2]
where a = half the crack length, f = fracture stress, Y = 1
•f for AA7075 = 338 MPa.
This is < y. f is used to calculate the cross section
•f for Ti-6Al-4V = 845 MPa.
This is > y . y is used to calculate the cross section.
•Cross section of AA7075 member = 148 mm2 , weight = 400 g
•Cross section of Ti-6Al-4V member = 60 mm2 , weight = 270 g
Conclusion
•Ti-6Al-4V can be used to make a lighter member
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 23
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 24
Fig. 4.6 Catastrophic brittle fracture of a steel liberty ship at low
temperature. From Flinn and Trojan (1990)

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 25

 Selection of materials for fatigue resistance
Fatigue strength of metallic materials generally increases with
increasing tensile strength. However, the higher the strength, the
higher the notch sensitivity of the material, which is measured by q:
q = (Kf - 1)/(Kt - 1) (4.9)
Kt = the stress concentration factor under staticloading
Kf = the ratio of the fatigue strength in the absence of stress
concentrations to the fatigue strength with stress concentration.

• As q increases from 0.0 to 1.0, the material becomes more sensitive

to the presence of stress concentrations.
• The value of q is also dependent on component size, and it
increases as size increases. Therefore, stress - raisers are more
dangerous in larger components made from stronger materials.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 26
 Table 4.7 Comparison of static and fatigue strengths
Tensile strength E n d u r a n c e l i mi t En d u r a n c e ratio
Material
(MPa) (MPa)
AISI 1010, normalized 364 186 0.46
1025, normalized 441 182 0.41
1060, normalized 735 315 0.43
1060, oil Q, tempered 1295 574 0.44
4340, oil Q, tempered 952 532 0.56
8640, oil Q, tempered 875 476 0.54
9314, oil Q, tempered 812 476 0.59
302, annealed 560 238 0.43
316, annealed 560 245 0.44
431, quenched. tempered 798 336 0.42
A S T M 2 0 gray cast iron 140 70 0.50
6 0 gray cast iron 420 168 0.40
A A 2011- T8 413 245 0.59
2024, annealed 189 91 0.48
6061- T6 315 98 0.31
7075- T6 581 161 0.28
3 8 0 Die-cast 336 140 0.42
Polyester-30% glass 123 84 0.68
Nyl o n 6 6 -4 0% glass 200 62.7 0.31
Polycarbonate-20% glass 107 34.5 0.32
4 0 % glass 131 41.4 0.32

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 27

 Design example 4.4 - Selecting a
material to resist fatigue I
Al AA 6061-T6, steel AISI 4340, and GFRP are considered as a
replacement for steel AISI 1025 in making a connecting rod to
save weight.
The con rod is of circular cross section, 300 mm long, and is
subjected to alternating tensile load of 60 kN.
Assume a derating factor of 0.4 on the fatigue strength.

• AISI 1025: UTS = 440 MPa, endurance ratio = 0.41, ρ = 7.8 g/cc
• AA 6061-T6: UTS = 314 MPa, endurance ratio = 0.31, ρ = 2.7
• AISI 4340: UTS = 952 MPa, endurance ratio = 0.56, ρ = 7.8 g/cc
• Polyester-30% glass: UTS = 123 MPa, endurance ratio = 0.68,
ρ = 1.45
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 28
 Design example 4.4 - Selecting a
material to resist fatigue II
Answer:

• AISI 1025: Cross section = 832 mm2, weight = 1.947 kg

• AA 6061-T6: Cross section = 1541 mm2, weight = 1.248 kg
• AISI 4340: Cross section = 281 mm2, weight = 0.658 kg
• Polyester-30% glass: Cross section = 1793 mm2, weight = 0.780
kg

Conclusion
• Using steel AISI 4340 gives the lightest connecting rod, with
polyester-30% glass as a close second
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 29
 Selection of materials for high temperature resistance
Table 4.8 Wi d el y used materials for different temperature ranges

Temperature range Wi d el y used materials

R T - 150 o C ≤100 o C thermoplastics
≤150 o C most engineering metals and alloys, F R P

150 o C - 400 o C ≤ 200 o C High temperature plastics (Polysulphones,

polyphenylenesulphides, polyethersulphone, fluoroplastics)
≤250 o C A l u mi n u m alloys, thermosetting plastics
≤400 o C Plain carbon steels(short exposures), low-alloy steels (long
exposures)

400 o C – 600 o C ≤ 450 o C Alpha-beta titanium alloys, low-alloy steels

≤ 600 o C 5 - 1 2 % (Cr + M o ) steels

600 o C – 1000 o C ≤ 650 o C Ferritic stainless steels

≤ 750 o C Austenitic stainless steels
≤ 800 o C Fe-Ni-base superalloys
≤ 850 o C Ni-base superalloys
≤ 980 o C Co-base superalloys

1000 o C and above Refractory metals (Mo, Nb, Ta, W )

Ceramics
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 39
Main factors that affect the behavior of materials in
corrosive environment
The main factors that affect the material behavior include:
• Type of corrosive medium
• Design of component or subassembly
• Type and treatment of material

Corrosive medium parameters include:

• Chemical composition and presence of impurities.
• Physical state whether solid, liquid, gas, or combinations.
• Aeration, oxygen content, and ionization.
• Bacteria content.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 31

 Design parameters that affect the rate of corrosion

The design parameters that affect the rate of corrosive attack include:

1. Stresses acting on the material in service;

2. Operating temperature;
3. Relative motion of medium with respect to the material;
4. Continuity of exposure of the material to the medium;
5. Contact between the material and other materials;
6. Possibility of stray currents;
7. Geometry of the component.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 32

Table 4.9 Relative corrosion resistance of some uncoated metallic materials

Acids
Industrial Fres Sea H2 SO4 Alkali
Material
atmospher h wate 5 – 15% s
e wate r concentration 8%
r
Low-carbon steel 1 1 1 1 5
Galvanized steel 4 2 4 1 1
Gray cast iron 4 1 1 1 4
4-6% Cr steels 3 3 3 1 4
18-8 stainless steel 5 5 4 2 5
18 - 35 stainless steel 5 5 4 4 4
Monel (70% Ni-30% Cu) 4 5 5 4 5
Nickel 4 5 5 4 5
Copper 4 4 4 3 3
Red brass (85% Cu-15% Zn) 4 3 4 3 1
Aluminum bronze 4 4 4 3 3
Nickel silver (65% Cu-18% Ni-17% Zn) 4 4 4 4 4
Aluminum 4 2 1 3 1
Duralumin 3 1 1 2 I
Key:
1 Poor-rapid attack, 2 Fair-temporary use, 3 Good-reasonable service, 4 Very good- reliable
service, 5 Excellent-unlimited service.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 33
Case study 4.5 – Corrosion of welded 304 stainless
steel tank
A food processing welded 304 stainless steel tank exhibited
considerable pitting corrosion near welded joints.
Analysis
Microscopic examination showed precipitates of chromium carbides
in the affected areas., which were heated to the sensitizing
temperature range (650-750 oC).
Precipitation of the carbides depleted the neighboring areas from
chromium.
Solution
Use 304L, as its carbon content is less than 0.03%, there is less
opportunity for chromium carbides to form during welding.
Other solutions include stabilized stainless steels, e.g. 347 or 321.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 34
 Coatings for protection against corrosion

Coatings are applied for one or more of the following purposes:

• modify the surface quality of color, brightness, reflectivity, etc.
• provide protection against corrosion or oxidation;
• provide protection against abrasion and wear; and/or
• provide electrical and thermal conductivity or insulation.

Protection against corrosion. Is achieved in two ways:

• Isolation of the surface from the environment, nonmetallic
coatings
• Electrochemical action., metallic coatings

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 35

Ta b l e 4 . 1 0 R a t i n g o f o r g a n i c c o a t i n g s
Cost Abrasion Flexibility Adhesion Resistance Exterior Color Resistance Maximum
resistance t o atmosphere durability retention to service
(salt s p r ay) chemicals (temperature
(general rating
Alkyd 3 2 3 3 1 3 1 1 1
A m in e-a lk yd 3 3 2 3 1 3 1 1 2
Acryli c 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 I 1
Cellulose
(b u tyra te)
1 2 3 2 3 2 3 1 I
Epoxy 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 2
E p o x y ester 2 3 1 3 3 2 1 I 2
F lu o ro c a rb o n 0.5 1 1 2 3 3 1 3 2
Phenolic 2 3 1 3 3 3 0 2 2
Polyamide 2 3 1 2 1 0 2 1 2
Plastisol 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 1
Polyester (oil
free)
2 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1
Polyvinyl
fluoride (PVF)
0.5 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 1
Polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVF2) 0.5 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 1
Silicone 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 1 3
Silicone alkyd 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 3
Silicone
polyester 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
S i l i c o n e acrylic 1 2 I 2 2 3 3 2 3
Vinyl 2 2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1
Vi n yl alkyd 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1
Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
1 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 1
N e o p re n e
(rubber) 3 3 3 2 3 3 I 1 1
Urethane 0.5 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2

P r o p e r t i e s : 3 = e x c e l l e n t , 2 = v e r y g o o d , 1 = f a i r, 0 = p o o r.
Cost: 3 = cheapest, 2 = m o d e r a t e price, 1 = expensive, 0.5 = very ex pensive

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 36

Table 4.11 Acid-resistant porcelain enamels for steel and cast iron

Constituent Enamel for steel (wt%) Enamel for cast iron (wt%)
Ground coat Cover coat Ground coat Cover coat
SiO2 56.44 41.55 77.7 37.0
B2O3 14.90 12.85 6.8 4.9
Na2O 16.59 7.18 4.3 16.8
K2O 0.51 7.96 - 1.7
Li2O 0.72 0.59 - -
CaO 3.06 - - 2.0
ZnO - 1.13 - 5.9
A12O3 0.27 - 7.2 1.9
TiO2 3.10 21.30 - 7.9
CuO 0.39 - - -
MnO2 1.12 - - -
NiO 0.03 - - -
CO3O4 1.24 - - -
P2O5 - 3.03 - -
F2 1.63 4.41 - -
PbO - - 4.0 8.8
Sb2O3 - - - 13.1

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 37

 Selection of materials for wear resistance
The main factors which influence the wear behavior of a material
under wear conditions can be grouped as:
Metallurgical variables:
• hardness,
• toughness,
• chemical composition, and
• microstructure.
Service variables,
• contacting materials,
• contact pressure,
• sliding speed, and operating temperature,
• surface finish, lubrication, and corrosion.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 38
Table 4.12 Surface hardening treatments for steels

Process Treatment Applications

Flame hardening Heat the surface using torch, then
quench.
Introduction hardening Heat the surface using high-
frequency induction current, then
quench.
Carburizing. Increasing Heat component at 850-950ºC in a
carbon content of the carbon-rich gas or solid, then
surface quench.
Hardened depth is 0.5 – 6 mm.
Used for gear teeth, crankshafts,
axles
Hardened depth is 0.5-1.5 mm.
Used for gear teeth, cams,
shafts, bolts, and nuts

Cyaniding. Increasing Heat component at 700-850ºC in a Hardened depth is 0.02-0.3 mm.

carbon and nitrogen cyanide-rich salt bath, e.g. Used for small gears, bolts, and
content of the surface Sodium cyanide, then quench nuts
Nitriding. Increasing Heat component at 500-650ºC in Hardened depth is 0.05-0.6 mm.
nitrogen ammonia gas Used for gears, shafts, and tools.
Content of the surface

Carbonitriding. Heat component at 700-850ºC in a Hardened depth is 0.05-0.6 mm.

Increasing carbon and mixture of carbon-rich and Used for gears, tools and nuts
nitrogen content of the ammonia gases, then quench
surface

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 39

 Wear resistance of plastics
Wear resistant, self lubricating plastics are favorably competing with
metals in many applications including bearings, cams, and gears,
Table 4.13.
In addition to ease of manufacture, these plastics have better
lubricating properties and need less maintenance.

In spite of their advantages, plastics have the following limitations:

• Plastics rubbing against plastics suffer more wear than
plastic - metal systems.
• Small variations in temperature cause large changes in wear rate.
• Plastics are sensitive to the surface roughness of the mating surface
• Type of metal can strongly affect the results. For example, using an
Al alloy instead of steel can increase the wear rate of plastics.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 40
Table 4.13 Wear properties of some lubricated plastics onsteel

Reinforci Wear Coefficie

Plastic material
ng factor a nt of
fibers friction b
Nylon 6/6-18% PTFE-2%silicone 6 0.08
Nylon 6/6-13% PTFE-2%silicone 30%carbon 6 0.11
Polyester -13% PTFE-2%silicone 30%glass 12 0.12
Acetal –20% PTFE 13 0.13
Acetal –2% silicone 27 0.12
Polyimide –10% PTFE 15%carbon 28 0.12
Polypropylene –20% PTFE 33 0.11
Polyurethane –15% PTFE 30%glass 35 0.25
Polystyrene –2% silicone 37 0.08
a
1010in 3 min / ft 1bh
b
Dynamic at 40 1b/in2, 50 ft / min.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 41
 Chapter 4: Summary I

1. Most ductile metallic materials are equally strong in tension and

compression, brittle materials, however, are generally much stronger
in compression than in tension.
2. The elastic modulus of a given class of materials is almost
independent of chemical composition and heat treatment.
The stiffness of a component may be increased by increasing the
second moment of area of its cross section.
3. When weight is an important consideration, the specific strength and
specific stiffness may be used as selection criteria.
4. Within a given class of materials, there is an inverse relationship
between strength and toughness. Decreasing the operating temperature
generally causes a decrease in toughness, particularly for carbon and
low alloy steels.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 42

 Chapter 4: Summary II
5. Fatigue strength of metallic materials generally increases with
increasing tensile strength.
However, the higher the strength the higher the notch sensitivity
and the greater is the need to eliminate coarse second phase
particles and to produce more refined, homogeneous structure.
Some fiber reinforced composites perform better in fatigue than
some metals especially when compared on per weight basis.
6. Many of the methods used to increase the strength at normal
temperatures become ineffective at high temperatures.
Fine dispersion of stable second phase particles may be used to
improve the creep strength.

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 43

 Chapter 4: Summary III
7. Corrosion resistance of a metallic material is affected by their
composition and impurities, nature and distribution of
microstructural constituents, surface condition and deposits, and
processing history.
Plastics and glasses exhibit good resistance to most chemicals,
with the exception of organic solvents in the case of plastics and
HF acid in the case of glasses.
8. Coatings for protection against corrosion either isolate the surface
from the environment, as in the case of nonmetallic coatings, or
by electrochemical action, as in the case metallic coatings.
9. Increasing the hardness and the toughness increases wear
resistance.
Hard surface coatings and surface hardening treatments may be
used to improve wear resistance.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: MahmoudFarag 44