PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

(PSY 305)

FALL 2019 Semester

Dr. Gary A. Rockwood

Towson University
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 LEARNING

A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN

BEHAVIOR DUE TO EXPERIENCE

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IS STABILITY THE RULE, AND CHANGE THE
EXCEPTION?

Or

IS CHANGE THE RULE, AND STABILITY THE

EXCEPTION?

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 ADAPTING TO OUR ENVIRONMENT
REFLEXES – INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS BY MUSCLES AND/OR GLANDS
(INFANTS, STRESS); VIRTUALLY IDENTICAL IN EXPRESSION AMONG
ALL MEMBERS OF A SPECIES; NO EXPERIENCE NECESSARY

FIXED ACTION PATTERN – A SERIES OF COORDINATED ACTIONS

INVOLVING THE ENTIRE BODY (WEAVER BIRDS); REQUIRES AN
INITIATING STIMULUS (i.e., a releaser); SOME VARIABILITY AMONG
MEMBERS OF A SPECIES

GENERAL BEHAVIOR TRAIT – A GENERAL BEHAVIORAL PATTERN WITH

PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., aggression); POTENTIALLY LARGE
DEGREE OF VARIABILITY AMONG MEMBERS OF A SPECIES

HORMONES – SUBSTANCES PRODUCED IN GLANDS, AND SECRETED

INTO THE BLOOD; SPECIFIC TARGETS AND SPECIFIC EFFECTS (e.g.,
stress, growth, etc.); INVOLVEMENT OF HYPOTHALAMUS

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WE CAN ALSO ADAPT TO
OUR ENVIRONMENT
THROUGH THE PROCESS
OF LEARNING

(A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN

BEHAVIOR DUE TO EXPERIENCE )
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 Measuring learning

ERROR RATE – NUMBER OF ERRORS PER AN AMOUNT OF TIME

TOPOGRAPHY – OVERALL APPEARANCE OF BEHAVIOR OR RESPONSE, SUCH AS

SWIM PATH IN MORRIS WATER MAZE

INTENSITY (STRENGTH OF RESPONSE) – INCREASING ENERGY OUTPUT TO

COMPLETE A BAR PRESS

SPEED – TIME TO COMPLETE A TASK

LATENCY - TIME TO INITIATE A TASK

RATE (OR FREQUENCY) - NUMBER OF OCCURANCES PER UNIT OF TIME, SUCH

AS NUMBER OF TYPED WORDS PER MINUTE

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 Research Designs
 Anecdotal evidence
o personal experience

 Case studies
o unique circumstances
o limited number of subjects described in great detail
o useful for others (professionals, individuals)

 Descriptive studies
o surveys, questionnaires, interviews

o honesty assumed

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 Experimental Research
o experiment: researcher manipulates one or more variables and measures
the effects of the manipulation on one more other variables
 independent variable – under control of experimenter
 dependent variable – measure obtained from the subject (could be
physiological, behavioral, etc.)
 extraneous (confounding) variables
o test groups
 experimental group(s)
 control group(s)
o within-subject vs between subject designs
 data variability; ABAB design
o sampling (from population to sample)
 random sampling
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 ANIMAL RESEARCH AND HUMAN LEARNING

 What’s the connection?

 How can one extrapolate?

 Are there any alternatives?

o Computer models
o Cellular models
o Emerging technologies

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 BASIC CONCEPTS
Stimulus
 stimulus events – from the environment
Response
 response events
o respondent (involuntary)
o operant (voluntary)
Contiguity (degree of closeness)
 temporal – based on time
 spatial – based on space

Contingency (degree of dependence)

 stimulus contingency
 response contingency

Habituation: learning to ignore a stimulus that is always present or highly predictable

(loud noises at night)
Sensitization: increased responding to a stimulus due to learning (paying attention)
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Classical (Pavlovian)
Conditioning

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 Ivan Pavlov

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904

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 Ivan Pavlov

o Russian Physiologist
o studied digestive processes in dogs
o observed salivary reflex as a function of food moisture
content
o surprised to see this “reflex” modified by experience
(“intelligent” salivary glands???)

o psychic reflexes
o developed a reproducible effect using a technique
today referred to as Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

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 Unconditioned reflex (US  UR)

 unconditioned stimulus (US) (e.g., food)

 unconditioned response (UR) (e.g., salivation)

Conditioned reflex (CS  CR)

 conditioned stimulus (CS) (e.g., bell)
 conditioned response (CR) (e.g., salivation)

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 Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
CS + US ----------------------------------- UR
(2nd trial)
(3rd trial)
“
“
”
CS ---------------------------------------- CR

Higher-order conditioning: successful pairing a neutral stimulus with

a well-established CS (i.e., established CS acts as a US)

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 Measuring Classical Conditioning

 How many trials?

 When should a test trial be attempted? (When has learning

occurred?)

 What variables are important for establishing this form of

conditioning?

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 Important Variable affecting Pavlovian Conditioning

 CS and US pairing
o trace conditioning
o delayed conditioning
o simultaneous conditioning
o backwards conditioning

 CS-US contingency (how reliably does the US follow the CS?)

o The greater the contingency, the better the conditioning

 CS-US contiguity
o Closer CS and US, the better the conditioning; but…
 What kind of response is being conditioned?

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 Stimulus features
o compound stimulus
 overshadowing

 Prior experience with CS and US

o latent inhibition
o blocking
o sensory preconditioning

 Number of CS-US pairings

 Intertrial Interval (ITI)

 Miscellaneous variables

 Extinction of conditioned responses: removing the

contingency that maintains the response
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 (Pavlovian) Conditioning
 Stimulus Substitution Theory (Pavlov)
• Presentation of a CS excites a particular brain area.
• When UCS follows the CS, the structure responsible for processing
the CS and UCS are active at the same time.
• Leads to a new neural pathway between the centers - ultimately, the CS
becomes a substitute for the UCS.
 Preparatory Response Theory
• Kimble proposed that the CR is a response that serves to prepare the
organism for the upcoming UCS
 Opponent Process Theory
• Siegel contends the CR and UCR are different
• Used Morphine as a UCS
• Analgesia became the UCR
• Used light or a tone as a CS

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Applications of Classical

(Pavlovian) Conditioning

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Conditioned emotional response (CER): an emotional response to
a stimulus that is acquired through Classical conditioning

Fear Conditioning
Eleven month old “Little Albert”
 distortion of experiment’s details
 generalization
 counterconditioning
 ethical/moral issues: could we conduct such an experiment today?

Prejudice (to pre-judge)

 Staats and Staats study
o ethnicity and opinion
Advertising
 using conditioning of emotions to sell products (smoking/being rugged)
 kill or prey upon? (Sea World example)
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 Conditioned aversions
 taste aversions
o John Garcia
 Pairing nausea with a preferred fluid led to subsequent
avoidance of fluid – even though fluid did NOT produce nausea
 differences from typical conditioning
o one pairing will often be sufficient
o effect is generally long-lasting (sometimes permanent)
 application of this work to the real world
o avoiding certain foods due to a bad experience, even if food did
NOT contribute to the experience (its now ok to offer me coleslaw)
 Odor aversions
o similar to taste aversions, but occur with odors, and not taste
o odors one of best triggers for memory

Immune response and conditioning? Sneezing at artificial flowers?

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Operant (Instrumental)
Conditioning

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Thorndike and animal intelligence
• puzzle box
– cat performance
• improvement with time
– trial and error learning
– no evidence for human-like reasoning

Law of Effect
The probability of a response depends on
the consequences the response has had
in the past.

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(1) Unlike behavior studied by Pavlov, behavior studied by
Thorndike and B.F. Skinner is voluntary. They are referred
to as operant behaviors, because the organism “operates” on
the environment.

(2) Skinner developed automated chambers to evaluate operant

behavior. These chambers, which can be modified to
accommodate different species, are generally referred to as
“Skinner boxes.”

(3) Thorndike used discrete trials procedure (subject presented

with a problem; once solved, the trial is completed); whereas
Skinner used a free operant procedure (no clear-cut problem
to be solved; subject is placed in a chamber, and is free to
behave in any way it likes; its behavior and behavior patterns
are recorded).
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 Operant Conditioning Procedures

Reinforcement
• increases or strengthens a behavior
• can be positive or negative

Punishment
• decreases or weakens a behavior
• can be positive or negative

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 Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers: naturally or inherently reinforcing; no learning
of reinforcing qualities; e.g., food, water

Secondary reinforcers: learned; dependent on association with

other reinforcers; e.g., praise

Generalized reinforcers: reinforcers paired with many different

reinforcers; and used in a wide variety of situations; e.g., money

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Shaping
• reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior
• experience necessary to shape correctly and efficiently
• often used in training animals

Chaining
• conditioning an organism to perform a chain or responses
• forward chaining: first reinforcing the first link of chain
• backward chaining: first reinforcing the last link of chain
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 Variables affecting Reinforcement
R-S contingency – higher contingency, better learning
R-S contiguity – closer in time, more effective
Reinforcer characteristics
Response characteristics
•Deprivation level - in general the greater the deprivation level, the better
the learning (greater reinforcing value)
However, there are limits – too great a deprivation level may be physically
damaging

Extinction of reinforced behavior

•resurgence

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 Theories of (Positive) Reinforcement
Drive-reduction theory – Clark Hull

•organisms act (are driven) to reduce physiological needs, such as fluid or nutritional needs
•as physiological needs are satisfied, the drive dissipates

Relative-value theory – David Premack

•different behaviors have different values

•of any 2 responses, the more probable one will reinforce the less probable one (high probability
behavior reinforces low probability behavior)

•example: for the average teenager, taking out the garbage is a low probability behavior,
whereas listening to music is a high probability behavior; one can increase the low probability
behavior by making access to the high probability contingent on the low probability behavior

Response-deprivation (or Equilibrium) theory – Timberlake and Allison

•all behaviors are exhibited at some baseline level

•behaviors become reinforcing when an organism is prevented from engaging in it

•unlike previous theory, the relative value of one reinforcer to another is not vital, but rather
the extent to which a behavior occurs below its baseline rate
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 Theories of Negative Reinforcement – Escape-Avoidance

• an organism, provided with the opportunity, will remove itself from an unpleasant (aversive)
environment (escape)

• if possible (i.e., a predictor cue is available), the organism may learn ways to completely avoid the
aversive environment (avoidance)

• Explanations:
-Two-process Theory
 Escape is the result of Operant learning (termination of the aversive event is
negatively reinforcing (removing an aversive stimulus is reinforcing)
 Avoidance is the result of Pavlovian learning (pairing a cue in the environment with
a negative emotion, such as fear)
o Problem with Two-process Theory
 A cue is not necessary for avoidance to occur (i.e., Sidman avoidance – pressing a
lever to delay onset of an unpleasant event, such as shock)
- One-process Theory
o Avoidance response involves only Operant learning: both escape and avoidance are
learned because each is reinforced by a reduction in aversive stimulation (i.e., shock)

•Each theory enjoys some empirical support

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Operant Conditioning:
PUNISHMENT

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Punishment – the procedure of providing consequences for a response
that reduce the frequency of that response

Positive punishment – adding something undesirable

Negative punishment – removing something desirable

R-S Contingency
The degree to which a punishing event follows a behavior will greatly affect how effective the
punishment will be. If punishment follows a behavior only 50% of the time, the decrease in behavior
will be much less that that following a contingency of 100%.

R-S Contiguity
The gap between the response and a punishing stimulus.

Intensity of punishment

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 Introductory level of punishment is a very important variable. Starting with a very weak
punisher and moving gradually to more intense punishment may result in organism adapting to the
increasing punishment. Initially using a weaker punisher may ultimately require the use of a more
intense punisher to diminish a behavior than would have been otherwise required.

Reinforcement of punished behavior – how much punishment will be tolerated if reinforcement

is also experienced?

Deprivation level can also affect how well a punisher will work.

Theories of Punishment
•Two-process theory
Lever paired with shock will become a CS for fear. (Pavlovian process)
Moving away from level lessens shock, and is therefore a reinforce, by reducing fear (Operant
response)

•One-process theory (enjoys more empirical support)

Reinforcement strengthens behavior (Operant process)
Punishment weakens behavior (Operant process)

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Potential problems with punishment
*Apathy
*Abuse
*Imitation of punisher

Alternatives to punishment
Response prevention
Extinction
Differential reinforcement
o differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) – reinforcing a behavior only
when it occurs at a low rate
o differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – reinforcing a
response that is incompatible with the undesired behavior
o differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) – reinforcing
desired, but not undesired behavior

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 Vicarious (Observational)
Learning

A change in behavior due to the experience of

observing a model

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Model: an organism interacting with its environment
Observer: an organism observing the model interacting with its environment

In operant conditioning, an observer watches a model undergoing operant

conditioning (for example, learning to press a lever for reinforcement). If
the observer learns this response faster than had it not observed the
model, then vicarious learning has occurred.

In Pavolvian conditioning, an observer watches a model undergoing Pavolvian

conditioning (learning to salivate to a light paired with food). If the
observer learns this response faster than had it not observed the model,
then vicarious learning has occurred.

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 Vicarious learning is not the same as imitation
(but topographically, they may look the same)

•Imitation of a model does not necessarily indicate that the

observer learned vicariously.
If an observer performs an act after a model, this does not
necessarily mean that the observer learned vicariously. It is
possible that the observer already knew how to perform this
behavior (paper boat example in book)

•Similarly, failure to imitate a model does not necessarily indicate

the learning has not occurred.
•Vicarious learning may be shown not only when an observer
shows the same behavior as a model, but also when an observer
behaves differently than the model (candy bowl example in
book)
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 Generalized Imitation

•Once imitating behavior has been reinforced, organisms may

display a tendency to learn vicariously, even after
reinforcement has been removed.
•Usually, an observer will imitate a model’s behavior when
that behavior is reinforced.
•However, sometimes, an observer will imitate a model’s
behavior even when that behavior is not reinforced.
“Success of past imitative behavior” is a key variable.

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 Variables affecting vicarious learning

Species
•some species can learn vicariously better than others (humans, nonhuman
primates, octopus)

Consequences of the model’s behavior

•if model is consistently reinforced, behavior will likely be imitated
•if model is consistently punished, behavior will likely not be imitated
•less consistent consequences lead to slower, less robust vicarious
learning

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 Consequences of the observer’s behavior

• success leads to repetition (if observation leads to

desirable consequences in the observer, then
observation will be more likely to occur in the future
than in observation fails to “pay off”)
• humans are most likely to imitate behavior they have
observed if it leads to success for them – regardless of
how successful it was for the model – therefore, if an
observed behavior worked for a model, the observer is
likely to imitate it. However, if the observer is not
successful, then the behavior will be discarded.

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 Characteristics of the model

•better learning if model is perceived as being:

attractive
competent
likable
prestigious (status)

•also better learning if model:

is emotionally expressive (either positive OR negative
emotions)
exhibits an unusual physical characteristic (remember eye
patch)

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 Characteristics of the observer

•Age
generally, adults learn vicariously better than children
older children learn vicariously better than younger children
in some species, younger will be more likely to imitate than older
(nonhuman primates), although this does not mean that younger learn
more from models – only that they may be more likely to imitate.

Learning history
Older may learn vicariously better than younger due to greater
experience

Emotional arousal
Generally, high emotional arousal will interfere with vicarious
learning

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 Theories of Vicarious Learning
Bandura
•Social Cognitive Theory – learning occurs during and shortly after the
actual observation, and involves 4 processes:
Attentional – observing relevant aspects of model’s behavior
Retentional – retaining the information, using words, verbal
representation of behavior
Motor reproductive – practicing the observed behavior
Motivational – model must be motivated by potential
reinforcement following behavior
•Some problems with theory
Why do some observers attend to behavior, while others do not?
May be due more to different learning histories, or attentional
processes
Species other than humans can learn vicariously – do these other
species also utilize complex retentional processes?

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 Miller Dollard Reinforcement Theory

•Changes in the observer’s behavior are due to the consequences of the

observer’s behavior, not those of the model
•However, why do imitative acts also occur in the absence of
reinforcement? One answer is that the initial reinforcement continues
to influence the observer’s behavior, even if the reinforcement has
been removed. One explanation may be: generalized imitation.

Theory Comparison
Bandura emphasizes internal processes, whereas Miller-Dollard stress
situational factors and learning history

Finally, is there a connection between societal and

individual aggression and imitation and vicarious
learning?
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 GENERALIZATION,
DISCRIMINATION
&
STIMULUS CONTROL

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Generalization: the tendency for a learned response to occur in the presence of
stimuli that were not present during training. Example: Little Albert being
frightened of not only the little white rat, but also of other stimuli (objects)
which resembled the little white rat.

Generalization gradient: any graphic depiction/representation of

generalization data.

Discrimination: the tendency for a response to occur in the presence of certain

stimuli, but not in their absence.

Discrimination training: any procedure for establishing a discrimination.

Pavolvian discrimination training: presenting one stimulus (CS+) with the US,
and presenting another stimulus (CS-) without the US.

Operant discrimination training: reinforcing a response (such as presenting

food with a lever is pressed) when it occurs in the presence of one stimulus (SD),
such as a green light, but not when the response occurs in the presence of
another stimulus (SΔ), such as a yellow light.

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Generalization Gradient

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SD: a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which a response will be
reinforced.

SΔ: a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which a response will either be

punished or go unreinforced.

Semantic generalization: generalization based on an abstract (e.g., the

meaning of a word), rather than a physical characteristic of a stimulus (e.g.,
similar color of objects). The example used in class: the word farm (CS) was
paired with a mild electric current (US), leading to an increased heart rate,
increased breathing rate, sweating (UR). After these were paired, the word
farm led to an increased heart rate, increased breathing rate and sweating (CR).
The researchers found that words related to farm based on meaning, such as
tractor, corn, plow, etc. also lead to a CR. This is an example of semantic
generalization.

Stimulus control: the tendency for a response to occur in the presence of an

SD, but not in the presence of an SΔ; the key here is that an organism’s response
will be subject to the stimulus or stimuli which are present; many believe that a
drug addict who relapses often comes in contact with the many contextual stimuli
present when the drugs were originally being used.

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 Stimulus control and insomnia

Stimulus control therapy is based on the idea that some people

with insomnia have learned to associate the bedroom with staying
awake rather than sleeping.

• You should spend no more than 20 minutes lying in bed trying to

fall asleep.
• If you cannot fall asleep within 20 minutes, get up, go to
another room and read or find another relaxing activity until
you feel sleepy again. Activities such as eating, balancing your
checkbook, doing housework, watching TV, or studying for a
test, which "reward" you for staying awake, should be avoided.
• When you start to feel sleepy, you can return to bed. If you
cannot fall asleep in another 20 minutes, repeat the process.
• Set an alarm clock and get up at the same time every day,
including weekends.
• Do not take a nap during the day.
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If a behavior is under stimulus control then:
The behavior happens when the stimulus is present.
The behavior doesn’t happen when the stimulus is
absent.

******************************************
Most of our behavior is under stimulus control.
Example 1: A person who contributes to charity
generously while visiting a charity organization may
watch every penny spent while at work.
Example 2: A person may be talkative when with
friends but never speak out in a classroom (this
person’s speech behavior is controlled by your social
environment).

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 Theories of Generalization and Discrimination
•Pavlov: suggested that after discrimination training, two areas of the brain are
distinguished, an area of excitation associated with the CS+, and an area of inhibition
associated with the CS-; when a novel stimulus is presented to the organism, if it is similar to
the CS+, it will activate this brain region near the CS+, and irradiate to the CS+ area, leading to
a CR (excitation); if, on the other hand, the novel stimulus is more similar to the CS-, then it will
activate an area of the brain near the CS-, irradiate to the CS-, leading to an inhibition of a CR.
PROBLEM: Pavlov never measured brain functioning and activity; this theory is purely
speculative.

•Spence: used Pavlov’s general ideas of excitation and inhibition, but took out the physiology;
Spence suggested that stimuli which resemble the CS+ will lead to the generation of an
excitatory gradient, and stimuli characteristics which resemble the CS- will lead to the
generation of an inhibitory gradient; the final determination of whether an organism will
respond to a novel stimulus will be a mathematical exercise (degree of similarity to CS+, and
subtracted of that the degree of similarity to CS-) – which ever is greater, “wins” out.

Lashley-Wade: these researchers suggested that generalization gradients will depend on

the prior experience the organism has had with the stimuli used in testing; for example, if a
researchers used different colored lights as an SD and an SΔ, the researchers must take into
account that the organism has probably had some experience outside the laboratory
distinguishing different colored lights.

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 Generalization, Discrimination and Concept Formation

Concept: any class whose members share one or more defining features; in
humans, the ability to form concepts is initially related to age and experience.
- Prototype

Transposition: the tendency, following discrimination training, to respond to any

stimulus that resembles the relationship between the SD and the SΔ.

Experimental Neurosis: any bizarre or neurotic-like behavior induced through an

experimental procedure, such as discrimination training (such as dogs being unable
to discriminate between a circle, and a second geometric shape which gradually
become a circle). Is there a relationship between experimental neurosis and
unusual human decision-making behaviors/reactions?

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 Schedules of
Reinforcement
How hard must I work to get that reinforcer?

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 Simple Schedules

Continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedule:

A reinforcement schedule in which a (correct or conditioned)
response is reinforced each time it occurs.

Examples:
• If lever pressing is the desired response, then following each lever press, a
reinforcer (e.g., a piece of food) is presented.
• If depositing money into a soft drink machine is the correct response, then
following the deposit of the appropriate amount of money, a reinforcer (e.g., a
can of soda) is presented.

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 Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule:
Any of several reinforcement schedules in which a response is
sometimes reinforced. Also referred to as partial
reinforcement.

* Intermittent reinforcement schedules can be based on

responses (ratio schedules) or based on passage of time (interval
schedules).

* Intermittent reinforcement schedules can also be designed to

present reinforcement in a regular (fixed) or variable (variable)
pattern.

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 TYPICAL INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES:

Reinforcement depends upon:

Number of Passage of
Responses time

Reinforcement is Regular Fixed ratio (FR) Fixed interval

(FI)
Irregular Variable ratio (VR) Variable interval
(VI)

EXAMPLES:
FR-10: only every 10th response is reinforced (piece work)
VR-10: on average, every 10th response is reinforced (salesperson on commission)
FI-10: a response will be reinforced only if it occurs at least 10 seconds since the last
reinforcement (waiting for a bus; this schedule results in a scalloped shaped curve)
VI-10: response will be reinforced only if it occurs, on average, at least 10 seconds
since the last reinforcement (predators waiting for prey)

“Fixed schedules (FR and FI) typically result in subjects exhibiting

post-reinforcement pauses (short pauses following reinforcement)” 64
 Other Simple Schedules of Reinforcement:

Fixed time (FT): reinforcement is delivered independent of behavior at fixed

intervals
Variable time (VT): reinforcement is delivered at varying intervals regardless of
what the organism does
Fixed duration (FD): reinforcement is contingent on the continuous performance of a
response for a fixed period of time
Variable duration (VD): reinforcement is contingent of the continuous performance
of a response for a period of time, with the length of time varying around an average
Differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL): a form of differential reinforcement
in which a response is reinforced only if it occurs no more than a specified number of
times in a given period
Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH): a form of differential reinforcement
in which a response is reinforced only if it occurs at least a specified number of
times in a given period

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 Extinction and reinforcement schedules
Commensurate with the degree of difficulty or ease to condition a response, is the difficulty
or ease with which it can be extinguished.

EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESIS FOR EXTINCTION BEHAVIOR OBSERVED

UNDER CRF AND INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

Discrimination hypothesis: extinction takes longer after intermittent reinforcement

because it is more difficult to discriminate between extinction and an intermittent schedule.
Frustration hypothesis: nonreinforcement of previously reinforced behavior is frustrating;
not frustration occurs during CRF schedules – therefore, during extinction, it extinguishes
rapidly; varying levels of frustration under intermittent schedules – therefore, extinction
occurs more slowly
Sequential hypothesis: subject learns sequence of events (nonreinforcement and
reinforcement)
Response unit hypothesis: suggests that what ever is required to lead to reinforcement is
a unit (1 lever press or 100); this suggests that unlike the other explanations, extinction
actually occurs more rapidly for intermittent schedules

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 Complex Schedules:

Multiple schedule: two or more simple schedules alternate with each schedule
associated with a particular stimulus (e.g., FI-10 when red light in illuminated; FR-33 when
green light is illuminated).

Mixed schedule: two or more simple schedules, neither associated with a particular
stimulus, alternate (i.e., one schedule may be in effect for 45 seconds, followed by
another schedule for 30 seconds, but there is no clear indication of a change in schedule)

Chain schedule: consists of a series of simple schedules, with reinforcement

delivered only on completion of the last schedule in the series. A distinguishing stimulus
marks the end of one schedule, and the beginning of the next.

Tandem schedule: consists of a series of simple schedules, with reinforcement

delivered only on completion of the last schedule in the series. The completion of one
schedule marks the beginning of the next. Reinforcement is delivered only after
completion of the second schedule. Unlike the chain schedule, there is no stimulus to
distinguish between schedules (e.g., there is no light to signal the end of one schedule, and
the beginning of the next.

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 Cooperative Schedules:

•Reinforcement schedules dependent on the behavior of two or more individuals.

Organisms must work together to achieve goal of receiving reinforcement.

• Including two individuals is easiest to train. However, it is possible to train

groups. Group projects are often used in a school setting. In such an
arrangement, a single assignment is given to a group of students. Ideally, each
member contributes to the project equally. For grading, typically the group as a
whole receives a single grade (i.e., each member receives the same grade). This
type of cooperative arrangement is often unsuccessful. Some members may take
on a larger share of the work than others, yet each will receive the same grade.
One strategy that often improves the outcome of such group efforts is for each
student to contribute according to his/her strengths. This may require teacher
involvement to help guide the process. Even with these good intentions,
cooperative projects often lead to bad feelings between members.

• Cooperation is usually required in the workplace. A single task may be assigned

to a group of employees. Difficulties as described above often continue to occur,
but may be overcome due to necessity.

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 Concurrent Schedules:
• two or more schedules are available at the same time

• a subject, for example, may be trained to press a lever under an FR-100

reinforcement schedule when a green light is illuminated, and to press a lever
under a VI-40 reinforcement schedule when a yellow light is illuminated. Under a
concurrent schedule, the subject is placed in a box with two levers available –
above one is a green light, and above the other is a yellow light. Thus, the subject
has a choice

• typically, a subject will select the schedule which will maximize

reinforcement, and minimize energy expenditure.

Matching Law:
Given two possible responses, each on its own reinforcement schedule, the
relative frequency of each response will equal the relative frequency of
reinforcement. The distribution of responses matches the availability of
reinforcement.
R1 r1
--- = ---
R2 r2
R1 = response 1
R2 = response 2
r1 = reinforcement schedule 1
r2 = reinforcement schedule 2
69
Forgetting
And
Memory

70
 Forgetting…
(What was that person’s name?)

a deterioration in performance
following learning

71
For this course, a demonstration of
forgetting (or a lack of forgetting) will
comprise of determining whether a person
can perform an act learned in the past.

“Did your 7:00 Learning Class slip you mind,”

actually means “DID YOU GO TO CLASS”.

72
However, sometimes an organism does not
perform a formally learned behavior because
they learned NOT to peform that behavior. For
example, if the behavior was extinguished (a rat
may not press a lever - even if lever presses
were followed by food – if that behavior was
extinguished).

Also, all forgetting is not necessarily complete

forgetting. Our performance may simply not be
as efficient or as good as it was in the past.
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 Measuring Forgetting
(retention interval: time between training and testing)

•free recall (consists of providing the opportunity to

performed a learned response)
•prompted recall (same as 1, but with the addition of
hints or prompts about the behavior to be performed)
•relearning (savings) method (a response is learned to
criterion before and after a retention interval)

•match-to-sample (a discrimination training procedure in

which the task is to select from 2 or more comparison
stimuli the 1 that matches a sample or reference)

74
•delayed match-to-sample(a discrimination training
procedure in which the task is to select from 2 or more
comparison stimuli the 1 that matches a sample or
reference, after a retention interval)
•recognition (identifying material previously learned)
•extinction method (comparing the rate of extinction
after a retention interval with the rate of extinction
immediately after training)
•gradient degradation (a flattening of a generalization
gradient)

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 Variables Affecting Forgetting

1) Length retention interval (the greater the

retention interval, the greater the forgetting)
2) Degree of learning (better the learning, the less
likely to forget)
•overlearning (continuing training beyond the point required to
produce errorless performance)
•fluency (a measure of the degree of learning based on rate,
typically the number of correct response per minute)

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 3) Prior learning
proactive interference (forgetting caused by
learning that occurred prior to the response in
question)

for example, French learned in high school interferes

with the Spanish which you are currently learning

4) Subsequent learning
retroactive interference (forgetting caused by
learning that occurred after the response in
question)

for example, Spanish which you are currently learning

interferes with you ability to recall the French which you
learned in high school
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5) Context (the lack of a familiar pattern of stimuli can
facilitate forgetting; likewise, the presence of these
stimuli can reduce forgetting)

78
 Application
Memory of eyewitnesses
(incident reconstruction)
•effect of duration of exposure to incident
•effect of retention interval
•free recall vs response to specific question
effect of question wording and implications
•details forgotten, or where they never actually
learned?
•influence of witness motivation

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 Theories of Forgetting

1) Decay Theory – the passage of time caused forgetting

(NOT SUPPORTED BY THE DATA)

2) Interference Theory (McGeoch) – events which

occur during the passage of time, not the passage of time
itself, contributes to forgetting (proactive interference,
retroactive interference)

……Finally, is forgetting necessarily bad????? Why or

why not????
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 Memory
•Sensory register (memory)
•Short-term memory (STM) – short-term warehouse
1)Chunking
•Long-term memory (LTM) – relatively permanent storage
1)Declarative
a.Episodic (time tagged)
b.Semantic
2)Procedural
•LTM organization

•Forgetting may reflect inability to retrieve information, depth of

original learning, masking (e.g., psychotropic drugs), or possibly
organic problem

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 Improving memory
Mnemonics – devices to improve memory
Examples:
•imagery
•disciplined rehearsal
•chunking
•prompts
•context cues
major presentation to entire corporation
executives

82
 Operant Applications:
Awareness, Thinking and
Decision Making

83
The self may be described, in part, as our behavior.

•How do we become aware of the self?

Mirrors? Can the blind be self-aware?

•Perhaps this can be answered if we first ask: how do we

become aware of others?
we can observe their behavior

•Similarly, we become aware of our behavior when we

observe our behavior

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 Parents help children learn self-awareness by
asking them questions, placing labels on feelings,
emotions, sensations
•Skinner – we increasingly become aware of ourselves
as we improve our ability to accurately observe others
and make inferences

•The better the observation accuracy, the better the

outcome (e.g., seeing a friend at party, observing
mood)

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Major series of studies on self-awareness by
Gordon Gallup examined whether or not nonhumans
are self-aware.

•studied nonhuman primates

•evaluated initial behavior in front of a mirror
•applied dye above eyelid
•observed behavioral changes
•concluded that these animals were self-aware
some controversy about interpretation of the
findings
•findings in other species

86
 Self-control

Definition: the tendency to act in our best interests

Some practice self-control regularly, some

occasionally, and some rarely. Why????

Self-control techniques
•physical restraint – physical prevention
•distancing – avoid trouble-prone situations
•distraction – otherwise occupying time
•deprivation and satiation -
•inform others of one’s goals – seeking support
monitoring behavior – monitor in order to change
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Generally, individuals lacking good self-control lack
instruction (but do NOT lack willpower or character).

Verbal behavior
Traditional view - words are symbols for communicating
ideas (ideas are encoded into words by one person, and
decoded by another person)
Skinner suggested instead that one should view words
(either written or spoken) as forms of behavior, and as
such, function as does other behavior (remains theoretical)

88
•verbal behavior will be controlled by the effects it
has on the environment (consequences)
•we learn to talk because speaking produces
reinforcers more than other forms of behavior

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 PROBLEM SOLVING
Insight – the sudden appearance of a solution to a problem
Creativity - involves the concept of novelty, originality

Algorithmic Approach – examining all possible solutions until

correct solution identified
•guaranteed success, BUT may be time-consuming
Heuristic Approach – digging for information to assist
•generally time-saving, BUT success NOT guaranteed

Most individuals will generally use one approach or another – however, it is not
uncommon for a person to, on occasion, use the less-often used approach.
Decision may be situation specific.

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 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
When unable to escape an unpleasant/aversive environment, an
organism may give up (e.g., inescapable shock in rats, dogs, etc.)

Relationship to (clinical) depression

•lack of control over life
•difficulty in making decisions (others make the important
decisions)
•work by Seligman (effectiveness of antidepressants in animals
showing learned helplessness)

•modeled by experimental neurosis

91
LIMITS OF
LEARNING

92
•There are limits to learning across species
each species will learn in a unique manner,
with a unique impact by various factors

•There are limits to learning within a species

one person may learn differently than
another person; heredity partly responsible

•There are also limits on what learning can

accomplish
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 Physical Characteristics
•One limitation on learning is the physical composition of a
species.

•Each species is physically assembled in a particular fashion.

A species with arms, such as humans, could, for example,
learn to jump rope, whereas a snake would not be physically
capable. Some species, such as birds of prey, have much
better vision than humans, and would be able to demonstrate
better learning for tasks utilizing this visual advantage.
However, one should not automatically assume that a physical
limitation reflects a cognitive limitation, although this may
sometimes be true.

94
 Monkey see, Monkey do????????
•Years ago, researchers tried, unsuccessfully, to teach
nonhuman primates (chimpanzees) to talk in a manner
similar to how humans talk. Many concluded that these
attempts failed because the chimpanzees could not
acquire language.

•However, it was later recognized that significant

physical differences existed between the vocal
structures of chimpanzees and those of humans.
Furthermore, it was noted that if we humans had the
same vocal structures as chimpanzees, we would be
incapable of talking as we do.

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•Other researchers developed experimental techniques
allowing for some rudimentary language to be acquired
using sign/symbol language, instead of verbal language.
(KOKO)

•It thus appeared that language acquisition could be

demonstrated in a species other than humans.
However, alternative interpretations are plentiful
(Terrace), and this topic remains as a source of strong
debate.

•Regardless, this demonstrates how physical

differences alone may be misinterpreted.

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 Nonheritability of Learned Behavior
Wouldn’t it be great if each of us was born with the learned
skills and behaviors of our parents? Think of the
possibilities (and how much time it would save).

Basic math would be already known to us. We would pick up

where our parents stopped to further our mathematical
abilities.

English syntax. Driving. ETC. ETC. No learning necessary!

Well ……………, not so fast. Let’s look at some facts.

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Psychologist William McDougall believed that learned
experiences were potentially passed down from one
generation to another, so that later generations would
be able to learn faster than the parents. He conducted
shock avoidance experiments, and was convinced that his
data supported this idea of one generation directly
benefiting from learning experienced by the previous
generation. It is likely that (unintentional) bias lead him
to these conclusions. Others scientists who later
conducted similar experiments failed to support his
ideas. Importantly, these later experiments included
some very important control conditions that allowed for
adequate comparisons and interpretation of the data.

98
So…………………………………………..,
McDougall’s notion has not been supported. Therefore,
learned behavior is NOT passed down from one generation
to another. Each of us must learn these skills and abilities
on our own.
Thus, NONHERITABILITY OF LEARNING means that our
learning potential is limited by what we learn within our own
lifetime. We do not get the “jump start” that McDougall
thought was possible. But, don’t get too upset - imagine
that your parents didn’t learn well, or didn’t learn accurately
– you would have to learn the information all over again.
Also, societal progress may have been stalled.

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 Heredity and Learning Ability
Wait a moment, how there be there any connection between
Heredity and Learning? The previous section (Nonheritability
of Learning) dispelled this notion.

Heredity does appear to play a role in learning ability (but not

in acquiring learned behavior). Genetically-mediated
differences across, as well as within a species, contribute to
differences in learning ability and potential.

Tryon studies with “bright” and “dull” rats.

Human twin studies – raised together or apart.

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 Neurological Damage and Learning

Environmental factors, such as malnutrition, prenatal

exposure to drugs, x-rays, radiation, lead, etc., can cause
damage to the central and/or autonomic nervous systems.
Damage to the CNS will limit learning potential.

Disease, illness, accident, and/or injury (including closed-

head injury, such as that sustained by boxers) can also
damage the CNS. Learning ability is affected, often
permanently.

101
 Critical Periods

Sometime, influences (learning opportunities) are most

effective at certain points during development.

Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)

Thalidomide

Learning Language

102
 Preparedness and Learning
Some behaviors are more easily learned by some species
than others. In addition, an organism may show remarkable
learning in one situation, yet appear clueless in a second
situation. (Brelands’ raccoons; Instinctive drift: tendency of
an animal to revert back to a fixed action pattern.)

Seligman’s Preparedness Continuum: organisms are

genetically prepared to learn some things, and not other
things.
Prepared --------- Unprepared --------- Contraprepared

103
 Cognitive Development and
Critical Thinking
(adapted from “Challenging our preconceptions: Thinking critically about Psychology,” by R. A. Smith)

104
 Piaget suggested a stage theory of cognitive
development.

Sensorimotor Stage ~ 0-2 yrs

Preoperational Stage ~ 2-7 yrs

Concrete Operational Stage ~ 7-12 yrs

Formal Operational Stage ~ 12+ yrs

105
 Characteristics of the
Sensorimotor Stage
(0-2 years of age)

Thought and action are virtually identical, as

the infant explores the world with its senses
and behaviors; object permanence develops;
the child is completely egocentric

106
 Characteristics of the
Preoperational Stage
(2-7 years of age)
Symbolic thought develops (e.g., language
use); object permanence is firmly
established; the child cannot coordinate
different attributes of an object or
different perspectives.

107
 Characteristics of the
Concrete Operational Stage
(7-12 years of age)

The child is able to perform reversible mental

operations on representations of objects;
understanding of conservation develops; the
child can apply logic to concrete situations.

108
 Characteristics of the
Formal Operational Stage
(12+ years of age)

The adolescent (or adult) can apply logic more

abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops;
Piaget believed that most people complete the
Formal Operational Stage by about age 16,
and are then capable of abstract thought and
critical thinking.

109
However, some pieces of research suggest that
Piaget’s belief that most individuals reach this
level of abstract and critical thinking was overly
optimistic. A 1976 study by McKinnon found
that of 185 freshmen at seven different
colleges, only 42.7% were operating at the
formal operational level. These and other pieces
of scientific evidence suggest that many people
(including adults) think at a level that makes
effective critical thinking difficult.

110
 So…

What is
CRITICAL
THINKING????
111
 CRITICAL THINKING:
A logical and rational process of avoiding
one’s preconceptions by gathering evidence,
contemplating and evaluating alternatives,
and coming to a conclusion.

Let’s explore some guidelines that may help all

of us use, and better develop critical thinking
skills.
112
1) Critical thinkers are flexible – they can
tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty.
•critical thinkers are open-minded, and continue to look at
additional information, before reaching conclusion
•if you enjoy mysteries and complexities and are willing to
wonder, you have some important qualities of critical thinkers
•willing to test ideas and assumptions

113
2) Critical thinkers identify inherent biases
and assumptions.
•most (if not all) statements we make have biases and
assumptions behind them
•biases and assumptions do not necessarily make
statements wrong, but we should be aware of that
possibility
•advertising claims (are they always true? are they ever
true???)

114
3) Critical thinkers maintain an air of
skepticism.
•when young, children believe most things people tell them
(remember being told that eating vegetables would make
you grow up big and strong?)
•as children grow, they may respond to the veggie claim, “oh,
really?” – in doing so, questioning the world begins
•with aging, this individual becomes even more
sophisticated, and wants some evidence to back up the claim
(“Prove it!!”)
many of us develop this skeptical approach as we age,
although we don’t always use it (i.e., we question

115
•information or ideas only when they do not fit with our
preconceived notions!)
•to be effective critical thinkers, we need to maintain a
skeptical attitude even about ideas with which we DO agree
•as adults, we can learn a lot from 4-5 years olds, who learn a
great deal about the world by asking questions
•adults should also question often, and critically
•sometimes the only way we learn that we have made an error
is to be questioned
•similarly, an important part of science is the willingness to
self-correct – to look for errors and work to correct them

116
4) Critical thinkers separate facts from opinions.
•a big difference between scientists and nonscientists is the
requirement of evidence when making a decision
•remember trying to convince your parents to allow you to stay
out later than normal with the argument, “Its OK for me to
stay out late – everyone else does!” When your parents
questioned you further, you admitted that “everyone else” was
your best friend and someone else you had heard about.
•your desire to stay out late led you to confuse opinion with
fact
•we must rely on scientific evidence when drawing conclusions
about empirical matters

117
5) Critical thinkers don’t oversimplify.
•although simple explanation to behavior are appealing, they
are often too simplistic to be correct
•avoiding oversimplification requires us to think divergently
– to imagine and explore alternative explanations
•we must realize that there may be more than one correct
way to answer a question
for example, a college using only one measure of academic
ability (SAT scores) is guilty of oversimplified thinking –
thankfully, most colleges look at other information as well so that
the best decision is reached
•similarly, many if not all psychological traits and behaviors
are much too complex to be explained by a single variable –
multiple variables and often complex interactions are likely
more representative of the truth
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6) Critical thinkers use logical inference
processes.
•we draw inferences when we make hypotheses based on
information given to us (e.g., when people talk to us)
•when Sally tells you that she is going to be at 9:00 pm even
though her usual bedtime is midnight, you draw some inference
– she may be overly tired, she may not feel good, or she may
have to get up early in the morning. All of these are logical
inferences because the follow reasonably from the information
provided. It would not be as logical to infer that Sally is tired
because she has been zapped by an alien ray gun that is sapping
her strength. Although this last inference is possible (???), it
is certainly not probable.

119
7) Critical thinkers examine available evidence
before drawing conclusions.
•effective critical thinkers appreciate the need to consult
diverse sources of information
•if we examine and rely on one source of information, we
may fall prey to a particular set of biased assumptions
•it is usually easier to discover the biases underlying a
specific position by looking at a variety of positions
•once we have examined several sources, we can than think
in a convergent manner (zeroing in)

120
 Conclusion
•even after reaching a conclusion using critical thinking,
good critical thinkers realize that they must continue to
use the above guidelines so that new preconceptions do not
blind them to alternative ideas
•for example accepted “facts” may change over time (such
is the nature of healthy science)
•REMEMBER: The view (position) we like the most or that
seems to make the most sense to us is not necessarily to
correct one – and we need to be willing to adjust
accordingly

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