DISTRIBUTED FORCES:

Centroids and center of grav

Introduction
• The earth exerts a gravitational force on each of the
particles forming a body. These forces can be
replaced by a single equivalent force equal to the
weight of the body and applied at the center of
gravity for the body.

• The centroid of an area is analogous to the center

of gravity of a body. The concept of the first
moment of an area is used to locate the centroid.

• Determination of the area of a surface of revolution

and the volume of a body of revolution are
accomplished with the Theorems of Pappus-
Guldinus.
• Center of gravity of • Center of gravity of
a plate a wire

 M y x W   xW
  x dW
My yW   yW
  y dW
Therefore, the location of the center
of gravity G with respect to the x,
y,z axes becomes
Center of mass versus center of
gravity
• Provided acceleration due to gravity g for every
particle is constant, then W = mg
• Therefore

 ~x m  ~y m  ~z m
x ;y  ,z 
m m m

• By comparison, the location of the center of gravity

coincides with that of center of mass
Centroids and First Moments of Areas and
Lines
• Centroid of an area • Centroid of a line

x W   x dW x W   x dW
x  At    x  t  dA x   La    x   a  dL
x A   x dA  Q y x L   x dL
 first moment with respect to y yL   y dL
yA   y dA  Q x
 first moment with respect to x
Centroid of a Volume
• Consider an object subdivided into
volume elements dV, for location of
the centroid,
~x dV ~y dV
   ~z dV
x V ;y V ;z  V
 dV  dV  dV
V V V
Centroid of an Area
• For centroid for surface area of an
object, such as plate and shell,
subdivide the area into differential
elements
~
dA
~ ~
 xdA  ydA  z dA
xA ;y  A ;z  A
 dA  dA  dA
A A A
Centroid of a Line
• If the geometry of the object takes
the form of a line, the balance of
moments of differential elements
dL about each of the coordinate
system yields
~x dL ~ydL
   ~z dL
xL ;y  L ;z  L
 dL  dL  dL
L L L
EXAMPLE 1
Locate the centroid of the rod bent into
the shape of a parabolic arc.
Differential element
Located on the curve at the arbitrary
point (x, y)
Area and Moment Arms
For differential length2of the element dL
 dx 
dL   dx    dy 
2 2
    1 dy
 dy 

Since x =2 y2 and then dx/dy = 2y

dL   2 y   1 dy

The
~ centroid
~
x  x, y  y
is located at
Integrations
~
 x dL 
1 2
x 4 y  1 dy
1 2
 y 4 y 2  1 dy
x L  01  0

 dL
1
0 0
2 2
4 y  1 dy 4 y  1 dy
L
0.6063
  0.410m
1.479
~
 y dL

1 2
y 4 y  1 dy
yL  01
 dL
 0
4 y 2
 1 dy
L
0.8484
  0.574m
1.479
EXAMPLE 2

Determine the x coordinate of a centroid of a triangle.

 Composite Bodies

• Consists of a series of connected

“simpler” shaped bodies, which
may be rectangular, triangular or
semicircular
• A body can be sectioned or divided
into its composite parts
• Accounting for finite number of
~
weights
xW ~
yW ~
zW
x y z
W W W
Procedure for Analysis
Composite Parts
• Divide the body or object into a finite
number of composite parts that have
simpler shapes
• Treat the hole in composite as an additional
composite part having negative weight or
size

Moment Arms
• Establish the coordinate axes and determine
the coordinates of the center of gravity or
centroid of each part
Procedure for Analysis
Summations
• Determine the coordinates of the
center of gravity by applying the center
of gravity equations
• If an object is symmetrical about an
axis, the centroid of the objects lies on
the axis
EXAMPLE

Locate the centroid of the plate area.

Composite Parts
Plate divided into 3 segments.
Area of small rectangle considered
“negative”.
Moment Arm
Location of the centroid for each piece is
determined and indicated in the diagram.

Summations

~
xA  4
x   0.348mm
 A 11 .5
~
y A 14
y   1.22mm
 A 11 .5
EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION:
• Divide the area into a triangle,
rectangle, and semicircle with a
circular cutout.
• Calculate the first moments of
each area with respect to the
For the plane area axes.
• Find the total area and first
shown, determine the moments of the triangle,
first moments with rectangle, and semicircle.
Subtract the area and first
respect to the x and y
axes and the location of • moment of the circular cutout.
Compute the coordinates of the area
centroid by dividing the first
the centroid.
• Find the total area and first moments Qx  506.2  103 mm3
of the triangle, rectangle, and
Q y  757.7  103 mm3
semicircle. Subtract the area and first
moment of the circular cutout.
• Compute the coordinates of the area centroid by
dividing the first moments by the total area.

 x A  757.7  103 mm3

X  
 A 13.828 103 mm 2

X  54.8 mm

 y A  506.2  103 mm3

Y  
 A 13.828 103 mm 2

Y  36.6 mm
 Determination of Centroids by
x A   xdA   x dxdy  Integration
xel dA • Double integration to find the first
moment may be avoided by
yA   y dA   y dxdy   yel dA
defining dA as a thin rectangle or
strip.

x A   xel dA x A   xel dA x A   xel dA

  x  ydx ax 2r 1 
   a  x  dx  cos  r 2 d 
yA   yel dA 2 3 2 
yA   yel dA yA   yel dA
y
   ydx   y   a  x  dx
2 2r 1 
 sin  r 2 d 
3 2 
EXAMPLE

SOLUTION:
Determine by direct • Determine the constant k.
integration the location of the
centroid of a parabolic • Evaluate the total
spandrel. area.
• Using either vertical or
horizontal strips, perform a
single integration to find the
first moments.
• Evaluate the centroid
 SOLUTION:
• Determine the constant k.
y  k x2
b
b  k a2  k 
a2
b a
y x2 or x y1 2
a2 b1 2

• Evaluate the total area.

A   dA
a
a
b 2  b x3 
  y dx   2 x dx   2 
0a  a 3  0
ab

3
• Using vertical strips, perform a single
integration to find the first moments.
a
 b 
Q y   xel dA   xydx   x 2 x 2 dx
0 a 
a
 b x4  a 2b
 2  
 a 4  0 4
a 2
y 1 b 
Qx   yel dA   ydx    2 x 2  dx
2 02a 
a
 b 2 x5  ab 2
 4  
 2a 5  0 10
• Or, using horizontal strips, perform a
single integration to find the first
moments.

b 2
ax a  x2
Q y   xel dA    a  x  dy   dy
2 0 2

1 b  2 a 2  a 2
b
  a  y dy 
2 0  b 
 4
 a 
Qx   yel dA   y  a  x  dy   y a  1 2 y1 2 dy
 b 
b
 a 3 2 ab 2
   ay  1 2 y dy 
0 b  10
• Evaluate the centroid
coordinates.
xA  Q y
ab a 2b 3
x  x a
3 4 4

yA  Q x
ab ab 2 3
y  y b
3 10 10
 Theorem of Pappus- Guldinus
The theorem provides a relatively simple method for calculating
surface area and volumes of revolution, utilizing first moments of
curves and areas.

• Surface of revolution is generated by rotating a plane curve about a fixed axis.

THEOREM 1
• Area of a surface of
revolution is equal to the
length of the generating
curve times the distance

A  2 yL
traveled by the centroid
through the rotation.
 A torus is a doughnut-
shaped solid formed by
revolving a circular
region about a line that
lies in the same plane as
the circle (but does not
intersect the circle).

• Body of revolution is generated by rotating a plane area about a fixed axis.

THEOREM 2
• Volume of a body of
revolution is equal to the
generating area times the
distance traveled by the
centroid through the rotation.
V  2 y A
Example

SOLUTION:
The outside diameter of a • Apply the theorem of Pappus-
pulley is 0.8 m, and the cross Guldinus to evaluate the
section of its rim is as shown. volumes or revolution for the
Knowing that the pulley is rectangular rim section and the
  7.85
made of steel  103that
and kg m 3the inner cutout section.
density of steel is • Multiply by density and
determine the mass and acceleration to get the mass
weight of the rim. and acceleration.
SOLUTION:
• Apply the theorem of Pappus-
Guldinus to evaluate the
volumes or revolution for the
rectangular rim section and the
inner cutout section.
• Multiply by density and
acceleration to get the mass and
acceleration.

 3
m  V  7.85  10 kg m 3
 6 3  9 3 3
7.65  10 mm 10 m mm 
 
m  60.0 kg


W  mg   60.0 kg  9.81 m s 2  W  589 N
BEAMS-EXTERNAL
EFFECTS
Beam – What is it?
 Beam  Structural member designed to
support loads applied at various points along
its length
 Beams offer resistance to bending due to
applied loads.

 Beams can be subjected to CONCENTRATED

loads or DISTRIBUTED loads or a
COMBINATION of both.
1. Determine axial & shearing
 forces and
Beam Design bending
is 2-Step moments
Process
produced by applied loads
2. Select structural cross-section &
material best suited to resist
shearing-forces and bending-
moments
Types of Beams
 Beam Loading and Supports
 Beams are classified according to the Support
Method(s); e.g., Simply-Supported, Cantilever

 Reactions at beam supports are Determinate if

they involve exactly THREE unknowns.

• Otherwise, they are Statically INdeterminate

Distributed Loads
 Distributed Loads on Beams

L • A distributed load is represented by plotting the

W   wdx   dA  A load per unit length, ω (N/m) . The total load is
0
equal to the area under the load curve (dW = ωdx).

 OPW   xdW • A distributed load can be replace by a concentrated

L load with a magnitude equal to the area under the
 OP A   xdA  x A load curve and a line of action passing through the
0 area centroid.
Example

SOLUTION:
A beam supports a distributed
load as shown. Determine the • The magnitude of the
equivalent concentrated load concentrated load is equal to the
and the reactions at the total load or the area under the
supports. curve.
• The line of action of the
concentrated load passes
through the centroid of the
• area under the curve.
Determine the support
reactions by summing
moments about the beam
SOLUTION:
• The magnitude of the concentrated load is equal to
the total load or the area under the curve.
F  18.0 kN

• The line of action of the concentrated load passes

through the centroid of the area under the curve.
63 kN  m
X  X  3.5 m
18 kN
• Determine the support reactions by summing
moments about the beam ends.

 M A  0 : B y  6 m   18 kN  3.5 m   0

B y  10.5 kN

 M B  0 :  Ay  6 m   18 kN  6 m  3.5 m   0
Ay  7.5 kN
BEAMS-INTERNAL
EFFECTS
Shear, Bending and Torsion
In addition to supporting tension or compression, a beam can resist
shear, bending and torsion.
• The force V is called the shear force, the
couple M is the bending moment, and the
couple T is the torsional moment.

Shear
• The shear force V on a section is the
algebraic sum of all lateral components of
the forces acting on one side of the
section. The shear force tends to slide
sections of the beam.

• Shear force is positive when the resultant

of the forces on the left section is upwards
or the right section is downwards.
Bending moment
• Bending moment is the algebraic sum of all moments acting on
one side of that section due to forces.

• Bending moment is considered positive when the moment of the

left section is clockwise and on the right portion anticlockwise.

Positive conventions of shear

and bending moment.
Shear and bending moment diagrams
The variations in shear force and bending moment are usually shown
graphically and the expressions for V and M when plotted against
distance along the beam to give the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the beam

Procedure of analysis
• Determine the reactions at the supports from the fbd of the entire
beam

• Isolate a portion of the beam either to the right or to the left of an

arbitrary transverse section, with fbd, and apply the equations of
equilibrium to the isolated portion of the beam. These equations
yield expressions for the shear force and bending moment acting at
the cut section on the part of the beam isolated.

• The part of the beam which involves a smaller number of forces

either to the right or the left of the arbitrary section usually yield a
simpler solution

• Avoid using a section which coincides with the location of a

Assignment: Derive Shear force and bending moment relationships.

EXAMPLE 1

Determine the shear and bending moment distributions of the simple

beam

Solution

Draw a fbd of the entire beam to determine the external

reactions.
Draw a fbd of the section either to the right or left of the concentrated load.
Do not take a section at the concentrated load.
Plot the shear force and bending moment diagrams
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the loaded beam
and determine the maximum moment M and its location x from the left end
Draw the shear and bending moment SOLUTION:
diagrams for the beam and loading • Taking entire beam as a free-body,
shown. calculate reactions at B and D.
• Find equivalent internal force-couple
systems for free-bodies formed by
cutting beam on either side of load
application points.
• Plot results.
SOLUTION:
• Taking entire beam as a free-body, calculate
reactions at B and D.
• Find equivalent internal force-couple systems at
sections on either side of load application points.
 Fy  0 :  20 kN  V1  0 V1  20 kN

 M 2  0 :  20 kN  0 m   M 1  0 M1  0

Similarly,
V3  26 kN M 3  50 kN  m
V4  26 kN M 4  50 kN  m
V5  26 kN M 5  50 kN  m
V6  26 kN M 6  50 kN  m
• Plot results.
Note that shear is of constant value
between concentrated loads and
bending moment varies linearly.
CABLES
Because of their unique combination of strength, lightness, and flexibility,
ropes and cables are often used to support loads and transmit forces in
structures, machines and vehicles.

In the force analysis of such systems, the weight of the cable itself may be
neglected ; however when cables are used as guys for radio antennas,
electrical transmission lines and derricks, the cable weight might become
important and must be included in structural analysis.
Assignment
Cable Subjected to a Distributed
Load
• For FBD of the cable having length ∆x
Cable Subjected to a Distributed
Load
   F  0;
x

 T cos   (T  T ) cos(   )  0
   Fy  0;
 T sin   w( x)( x)  (T  T ) sin(   )  0
 M O  0;
w( x)( x)k (x)  T cos y  T sin x  0
 d (T cos )
 0 eqn 1
dx
d (T sin )
 w o eqn 2
dx
dy
 tan  eqn 3
dx
• From Eqn 1 and let T = FH at x = 0:

T cos   cons tan t  FH eqn 4

• Integrating Eqn 2 realizing that Tsin = 0 at x = 0:

T sin   wo x eqn 5
• Eqn 5/Eqn 4:

dy wo x
tan    eqn 6
dx FH
 dy wo x
tan    eqn 6
dx FH

FH

• Performing an integration with y = 0 at x = 0 yields

wo 2 y = h at x = L
wo L2
y x eqn 7 FH  eqn 8
2 FH 2h

Cable profile: h 2
parabola y 2 x eqn 9
L
 Tmax
• Where and what is the max tension? max

T cos   FH eqn 4

T sin   wo x eqn 5
T  FH 2  ( wo x ) 2
FH
• T is max when x=L
Tmax  FH 2  ( wo L )2 eqn 10

wo L2
FH  eqn 8
2h

Tmax  wo L 1  ( L / 2h )2 eqn 11
 Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load

T cos   FH

T sin   wo x

dy wo x
tan   
dx FH T

2
wo L
FH 
2h
FH
h 2
y 2
x
L

Tmax  wo L 1  ( L / 2h ) 2
EXAMPLE
Catenary
• Consider a cable uniformly loaded along the cable
itself, e.g., cables hanging under their own weight.
• With loading on the cable from lowest point C to a
point D given by W  ws , the internal tension
force magnitude is
T
T  T02  w 2 s 2  w c 2  s 2 c 0
w
• To relate horizontal distance x to cable length s,
T0 ds
dx  ds cos  cos 
T q  s2 c2
s
ds s x
x  c sinh 1 and s  c sinh
0 q  s2 c2 c c
Catenary
• To relate x and y cable coordinates,
W s x
dy  dx tan   dx  dx  sinh dx
T0 c c
x
x x
y  c   sinh dx  c cosh  c
0 c c
x
y  c cosh
c
which is the equation of a catenary.
Determine the deflection curve, the length,
and the maximum tension in the uniform
cable. The cable weights wo = 5N/m.
Solution
• For symmetry, origin located at the center of the
cable
• Deflection curve expressed as y = f(x)
ds
x

1  1 / F 2
 H   wods  
2 1 / 2

Integrating term in the denominator

ds
x
1  
1 / FH2  wo s  C1  
2 1/ 2
Solution
Substitute
u  1 / FH  wo s  C1 
So that
du  ( wo / FH )ds
Perform second integration
x
FH
wo

sinh 1 u  C2 
or
FH  1  1  
x sinh   wo s  C1    C2 
wo   FH  
Solution
Evaluate constants
dy 1

dx FH  wo ds
or
dy  1 
 wo s  C1 
dx  FH 
dy/dx = 0 at s = 0, then C1 = 0
To obtain deflection curve, solve for s
FH  wo 
s sinh  x
wo  FH 
Solution
dy  wo 
 sinh  x 
dx  FH 
Hence
FH w 
y cosh  o x   C3
wo  FH 
Boundary Condition y = 0 at x = 0
FH
C3  
wo
For deflection curve,
F   wo  
y H cosh  x   1
wo   FH  
This equations defines a catenary curve
Solution
Boundary Condition y = h at x = L/2
F   wo  
h H  cosh  x   1
wo   FH  
Since wo = 5N/m, h = 6m and L = 20m,
FH   50 N  
6m  cosh    1
5N / m   FH  
By trial and error,
FH  45.9 N
Solution
For deflection curve,
y  9.19 cosh  0.109 x   1 m
x = 10m, for half length of the cable
 5N / m


45.9
sinh  10m    12.1m
2 5N / m  45.9 N 
Hence
  24.2m
Maximum tension occurs when θ is maximum at
s = 12.1m
Solution
dy 5 N / m12.1m 
 tan  max   1.32
dx s 12.1m 45.9 N
 max  52.8 

FH 45.9 N
Tmax    75.9 N
cos  max cos 52.8 