Pretest

Terminology
• Physical Activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by the
contraction of skeletal muscles that results in a substantial increase
in caloric requirements over resting energyexpenditure

• Exercise is a type of physical activity consisting of planned,

structured, and repetitive bodily movement done to improve
and/or maintain one or more components of physical fitness

• Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and
alertness, without undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy
leisure-time pursuits and meet unforeseenemergencies
ACSM. ACSM’s Guideline for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 10th edition, Philadelphia, ACSM;2018
Jenis exercise
1. Latihan aerobic
2. Latihan resistance:
a.Latihan endurance
b.Latihan strengthening
1. Latihan flexibilitas
Cardiorespiratory endurance?
• the ability of the circulatory and respiratory system to supply
oxygen during sustained physical activity
Maximal O2 comsumption
• a measure of the power of the aerobic energy system, and is generally regarded as the best
indicator of aerobic fitness.
• The most widely recognized measure of cardiopulmonary fitness is the aerobic capacity, or VO
max 2 .
• This variable is defined physiologically as the highest rate of oxygen transport and use that can
be achieved at maximal physical exertion.
• The resting oxygen consumption of an individual (250 mL/min) divided by body weight (70 kg)
gives the resting energy requirement, 1 MET (approximately 3.5 mL/ kg per minute). Multiples of
this value are used to quantify levels of energy expenditure.
• For example, running a 6-mph pace requires 10 times the resting energy expenditure, giving an
aerobic cost of 10 METs, or 35 mL/kg per minute. Because there is little variation in HRmax and
maximal systemic arteriovenous oxygen difference with physical training, VO max 2 virtually
defines the pumping capacity of the heart. When expressed as milliliters of oxygen per kilogram
of body weight per minute (mL/kg per minute) or in METs, it is considered the best index of
physical work capacity or cardiorespiratory fitness.
EFEK LATIHAN TERHADAP VO2 MAKS

• Vo2 maks adalah kecepatan pemakaian oksigen

dalam metabolisme aerob maksimum
• Latihan meningkatkan Vo2 maks hanya sekitar 10 %
pada latihan jangka pendek
• Peningkatan Vo2 maks lebih karena ukuran dada lebih
besar dan otot pernafasan yang lebih kuat
Energy Systems
• A 70-kg human has an energy expenditure at rest of approximately 1.2 kcal/min, with
less than 20% of the resting energy expenditure attributed to skeletal muscle. During
intense exercise, however, total energy expenditure can increase 15 to 25 times above
resting values, resulting in a caloric expenditure between 18 and 30 kcal/min. Most of
this increase is used to provide energy to the exercising muscles that can increase energy
requirements by a factor of 200.
• The energy used to fuel biological processes comes from the breakdown of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), specifically from the chemical energy stored in the bonds of the last
two phosphates of the ATP molecules. When work is performed, the bond between the
last two phosphates is broken, producing energy and heat:
ATPase
• ATP-----ADP+Pi+energy
• The limited stores of ATP in skeletal muscles can fuel approximately 5 to 10 seconds of
high-intensity work (Figure 15-1). ATP must be continuously resynthesized from
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to allow exercise to continue. Muscle fibers contain three
metabolic pathways for producing ATP: the creatine phosphate system, rapid glycolysis,
and aerobic oxidationATP ADP Pi energy ATPase + +
Creatine Phosphate System
• When limited stores of ATP are nearly depleted during high-intensity exercise (5
to 10 seconds), the creatine phosphate system transfers a high-energy phosphate
from creatine phosphate to rephosphorylate ATP from ADP:
kreatinin kinase
ADP+Creatine phosphate---------------- ATP+creatine
• Because it involves a single reaction, this system can provide ATP at a very rapid
rate. Because there is a limited supply of creatine phosphate in the muscle,
however, the amount of ATP that can be produced is also limited.
• There is enough creatine phosphate stored in skeletal muscle for approximately
25 seconds of high-intensity work (see Figure 15-1). The ATP–creatine phosphate
system lasts for approximately 30 seconds (5 seconds for the stored ATP and 25
seconds for creatine phosphate). This provides energy for activities such as
sprinting and weightlifting. The creatine phosphate system is considered an
anaerobic system because oxygen is not required
 Rapid Glycolysis (Lactic Acid System)
• Glycolysis uses carbohydrates primarily in the form of muscle glycogen as
a fuel source. When glycolysis is rapid, the pathways that normally use
oxygen to make energy are circumvented in favor of other, faster yet less
efficient paths that do not require oxygen. As a result, only a small amount
of ATP is produced anaerobically, and lactic acid is produced as a
byproduct of the reaction.
• For many years, lactic acid was considered to be the waste product caused
by inadequate oxygen supply. Lactic acid limited physical activity by building
up in muscles and leading to fatigue and diminished performance. Since the
early 1980s, there has been a fundamental change in thought, and evidence
now shows that a limited oxygen supply is not required for lactic acid
production. Lactate is produced and used continuously under fully aerobic
conditions. This is referred to as the cell-to-cell lactate shuttle in which
lactate serves as a metabolic intermediate tying together glycolysis (as an
end product) and oxidative metabolism.
• Once lactic acid is formed, there are two possible venues it can take. The
first involves conversion into pyruvic acid and subsequently into energy
(ATP) under aerobic conditions (see section on “Aerobic Oxidation
System”). The second involves hepatic gluconeogenesis using lactate to
produce glucose, which is known as the Cori cycle.
• Anaerobic oxidation starts as soon as high-intensity exercise begins and
dominates for approximately 1.5 to 2 minutes (see Figure 15-1). It would
fuel activities such as middle-distance sprints (400-, 600-, and 800-m runs)
or events requiring sudden bursts of energy, such as weightlifting.
• Although glycolysis is considered an anaerobic pathway, it can readily
participate in the aerobic metabolism when oxygen is available and is
considered the first step in the aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates.
 Aerobic Oxidation System
• The final metabolic pathway for ATP production combines two complex metabolic processes: the
Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. The aerobic oxidation system resides in the
mitochondria. It is capable of using carbohydrates, fat, and small amounts of protein to produce
energy (ATP) during exercise, through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. During exercise,
this pathway uses oxygen to completely metabolize the carbohydrates to produce energy (ATP),
leaving only carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. The aerobic oxidation system is complex and
requires 2 to 3 minutes to adjust to a change in exercise intensity (see Figure 15-1). It has an almost
unlimited ability to regenerate ATP, however, limited only by the amount of fuel and oxygen that is
available to the cell. Maximal oxygen consumption, also known as VO max 2 , is a measure of the
power of the aerobic energy system, and is generally regarded as the best indicator of aerobic
fitness.
• All the energy-producing pathways are active during most types of exercise, but different exercise
types place greater demands on different pathways. The contribution of the anaerobic pathways
(creatine phosphate system and glycolysis) to exercise energy metabolism is inversely related to the
duration and intensity of the activity. The shorter and more intense the activity, the greater the
contribution of anaerobic energy production, whereas the longer the activity and the lower the
intensity, the greater the contribution of aerobic energy production. In general, carbohydrates are
used as the primary fuel at the onset of exercise and during high-intensity work. However, during
prolonged exercise of low to moderate intensity (longer than 30 minutes), a gradual shift from
carbohydrate toward an increasing reliance on fat as a substrate occurs. The greatest amount of fat
use occurs at approximately 60% of maximal aerobic capacity (VO max 2 )
 Adenosin Trifosfat
• Sumber energi
sesungguhnya yang
digunakan untuk
kontraksi otot
• Dalam otot manusia pada
umumnya,bahkan pada
otot atlet jumlah ATP
dalam otot cukup untuk
mempertahankan daya
maksimal otot selama
hanya sekitar 3 detik/
setengah bagian lari
cepat 50 meter
• ATP akan terus dibentuk
selama performa Ikatan fosfat berenergi tinggi (setiap ikatan
menyimpan 7300 kalori energi per mol ATP
Adenosin Trifosfat
 Muscle fibers contain three metabolic pathways for
producing ATP: the creatine phosphate system,
rapid glycolysis, and aerobic oxidation
Sistem Fosfokreatin-kreatin
(Kreatin Fosfat)
 Ketika ATP yang
tersimpan mulai
menurun, ketika latihan
intensitas tinggi (5-10 s)
transfer high-energy

• Senyawa kimia lain dengan

ikatan fosfat berenergi
tinggi Energi : 10.300
kal/mol

• Menyedikan energi energi

yang cukup untuk
membentuk ikatan fosfat
berenergi tinggi pada ATP
• Ciri Pengantaran energi dari fosfokreatin ke ATP , dalam
jangka waktu yang cepat (segera tersedia untuk
kontraksi otot) karena hanya merupakan reaksi tunggal
• Karena ketersedian kreatin fosfat maka jumlah ATP
yang dapat diproduksi juga terbatas
• Sistem Kreatin fosfat merupakan sistem anaerobik
karena oksigen tidak diperlukan untuk prosesnya.
• Gabungan ATP sel dan fosfokreatin sel : energi fosfagen
• Menyediakan daya otot maksimal selama 8 sampai 10 detik, cukup
untuk lari 100 m (letupan- letupan singkat tenaga otot maksimal), co :
sprinting dan weightlifting
• Kreatin fosfat di otot skeletal mampu memenuhi kebutuhan energi
sekitar 25 detik pada high intensity
• ATP-creatin phosphate system : 30 detik
• (5 detik ATP yang ada di otot, dan 25 detik kreatin fosfat
Sistem Glikogen- Asam Laktat
• Glikogen dalam
otot dipecah
→glukosa
(glikolisis)(metabol
isme anaerobik)
• Setiap glukosa
dipecah menjadi 2
asam piruvat dan
melepaskan 4
molekul ATP
• Asam piruvat
masuk ke
mitokondria sel
otot
 Sistem Glikogen- Asam Laktat
• Di dalam mitokondria asam
piruvat akan berekasi dengan
Oksigen untuk membentuk
lbh banyak ATP ( siklus kreb
dan transfer elektron)
• Bila tidak terdapat Oksigen
→asam piruvat diubah
menjadi asam laktat
• Sistem glikogen-asam laktat dapat
• Kecepatan nya hanya menyuplai aktivitas otot maksimaal 1,3
setengah dari sistem fosfagen -1,6 menit disamping 8-10 detik yang
disuplai oleh sistem fosfagen
• Dibutuhkan 2-3 menit untuk • Sistem Glikogen- Asam laktat
aerobik oxidation memberikan cukup energi 1-2 menit
sebelum akumulasi asam laktat yang
membuat fatique
Sistem Aerobik
• Sistem aerobik adalah
oksidasi bahan makanan
dalam mitokondria
untuk menghasilkan
energi (glukosa, asam
lemak, dan asam amino)
• Asam lemak, asam
amino, glukosa akan
berikatan dgn oksigen
untuk melepaskan
sejumlah energi
• All the energy-producing pathways are active during most types of
exercise, but different exercise types place greater demands on
different pathways.
• The contribution of the anaerobic pathways (creatine phosphate
system and glycolysis) to exercise energy metabolism is inversely
related to the duration and intensity of the activity.
• The shorter and more intense the activity, the greater the
contribution of anaerobic energy production, whereas the longer the
activity and the lower the intensity, the greater the contribution of
aerobic energy production.
 Effect of regular exercise on
cardiovascular activity
Changes at rest
• Heart rate decreases. probably secondary to decreased sympathetic
tone, increase parasympathetic tone, and a decreased intrinsic firing
rate of the sinoatrial node.
• Stroke volume increases secondary to increased myocardial
contractility.
• Cardiac output is unchanged at rest
• Oxygen consumption does not change at rest
Changes at submaximal work"
• Heart rate decreases, at any given workload, due to the increased stroke volume
and decreased sympathetic drive.
• Stroke volume increases due to increased myocardial contractility.
• Cardiac output does not change significantly, because the oxygen requirements
for a fixed workload are similar. The same cardiac output is generated, however,
with a lower heart rate and higher stroke volume.
• Submaximal oxygen consumption does not change significantly, because oxygen
requirement is similar for a fixed workload.
• Arteriovenous oxygen difference increases during submaximal work.
• Lactate levels are decreased due to metabolic efficiency and increased lactate
clearance rates
Changes at maximal work
• Maximal heart rate does not change with exercise training.
• Stroke volume increases due to increased contractility and/or
increased heart size.
• Maximal cardiac output increases due to increased strokevolume.
• Maximal oxygen consumption (Vo-,J increases primarily due to
increased stroke volume.
• Improved ability of the local mitochondria to utilize oxygen.
Respon natural terhadap latihan aerobic akut
pada cardiopulmonary
• Heart Rate
There is a linear relationship between HR, measured in beats per minute, and intensity of
exercise, indicating that as workload or intensity increases, HR increases proportionally.
The magnitude of increase in HR :
age, fitness level, type of activity being performed, presence of disease, medications, blood
volume,and environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

• Stroke Volume
The volume or amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per heart beat is termed the
stroke volume (SV), measured in mL/beat. As workload increases, SV increases linearly up
to approximately 50% of aerobic capacity, after which it increases only slightly.
Factors that influence the magnitude of change in SV include ventricular function,body
position, and exercise intensity.
• Arterial-Venous Oxygen Difference
The amount of oxygen extracted by the tissues from the blood represents the
difference between arterial blood oxygen content and venous blood oxygen
content and is referred to as the arterial-venous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff),
measured in mL/dL. As exercise intensity increases, a-vO2 diff increases linearly,
indicating that the tissues are extracting more oxygen from the blood, decreasing
venous oxygen content as exercise progresses.
• Blood Flow
The distribution of blood fl ow (mL) to the body changes dramatically during acute
exercise. Whereas at rest, approximately 15% to 20% of the cardiac output goes to
muscle, during exercise approximately 80% to 85% is distributed to working muscle
and shunted away from the viscera. During heavy exercise, or when the body starts
to overheat, increased blood flow is delivered to the skin to conduct heat away
from the body’s core, leaving less blood for working muscles.
• Blood Pressure The two components of BP, systolic (SBP) and diastolic
(DBP) pressure, respond differently during acute bouts of exercise.
• To facilitate blood and oxygen delivery to the tissues, SBP increases linearly
with workload. Because DBP represents the pressure in the arteries when
the heart is at rest, it changes little during aerobic exercise, regardless of
intensity. A change in DBP of <15 mm Hg from the resting value is
considered a normal response. Both SBP and DBP are higher during upper
extremity aerobic activity, compared to lower extremity aerobic activity.
This increase is thought to be due to increased resistance to blood fl ow
and a resulting increase in BP to overcome the increased resistance as a
result of the smaller muscle mass and vasculature of the upper extremities
compared to the lower extremities.
• Pulmonary Ventilation
The respiratory system responds during exercise by increasing the
rate and depth of breathing in order to increase the amount of air
exchanged per minute (L per minute). An immediate increase in rate
and depth occurs in response to exercise and is thought to be
facilitated by the nervous system, initiated by the movement of the
body. A second, more gradual, increase occurs in response to body
temperature and blood chemical changes as a result of the increased
oxygen use by the tissues. Thus both tidal volume, or the amount of air
moved into and out of the lungs during regular breathing, and RR, the
number of breaths per minute, increase in proportion to the intensity
of exercise.
Pengaruh Latihan pada Otot dan Kinerja Otot

• Salah satu prinsip utama perkembangan otot selama

latihan adalah:
• Otot yang bekerja tanpa beban walaupun dilatih berjam-
jam, kekuatannya hanya sedikit meningkat
• Kekuatan otot yang berkontraksi lebih dari 50 persen gaya
maksimal kontraksi akan berkembang lbh cepat
meskipunketika kontraksi hanya dilakukan beberapakali
sehari
 Pengaruh Latihan pada Otot
• Dewasa muda yang mendapat
program latihan tiga set 3 hari
perminggu, kekutan otot
meningkat kira-kira 30 persen
dalam 6-8 minggu pertama tetapi
setelah itu hampir mendatar dan
setting-an ini optimal dalam
meningkatkan kekuatan otot tanpa
menghasilkan chronic muscle
fatique
• Bersamaan dengan peningkatan
kekutan otot juga terjadi
peningkatan presentasi massa otot
(hipertrofi otot) (30-60%)
• Peningkatan massa otot
disebabkan peningkatan diameter
serat otot
• Perubahan yang terjadi pada serat otot
1. Peningkatan jumlah miofibril
2. Peningkatan enzim mitokondria sampai 120 persen
3. Peningkatan komponen sistem metabolik fosfagen
sebanyak 60-80 %, termasuk ATP dan fosfokreatin
4. Peningkatan cadangan glikogen sebanyak 50 persen
5. Peningkatan cadangan trigliserida sebanyak 75 sampai
100 persen

• Akibatnya meningkatkan kemampuan sistem metabolik

aerob dan anaerob, terutama meningkatkan maximum
oxidation rate and the efficiency of the oxidative
metabolic system as much as 45 percent
• Otot yang sering dilatih punya aktivitas enzim aerobik
yang tinggi, dan mengandung serabut aerobik (tipe I
dan IIa) yang lebih banyak.
 Fast Twitch Slow Twitch
Diameter 2x lebih besar
Enzym digunakan dalam 2-3x lbh aktif, shg
menghasilkan energi (dr sistem maximal power dpt
phospagen dan glycogen-lactic dicapai 2x lbh singkat
acid)
Motokondria Lbh bnyk, untuk yg
membutuhkan
endurance lbh lama
Enzym untuk aerob metabolic Lebih aktif
system
Jumlah kapiler Lebih banyak

Untuk menghasilkan Untuk endurance,

power besar dlm wkt prolong strength
singkat (1-2’) (minute to hours)
Perubahan tipe serabut
• Pelari jarak jauh yg merubah lat aerob  anaerob:
• p↓ serabut tipe I dr 69%  52%
• p↑ serabut tipe IIb dr 10% 18%

• Perubahan drastis menjadi imobilisasi pd atlit lari:

• p↓ serabut tipe I dr 54%  43%
Detraining
• The changes induced by regular exercise training generally are lost after 4
to 8 weeks of detraining. If training is reestablished, the rate at which the
training effects occur does not appear to be faster.
Overtraining
• Overtraining fatigue syndrome presents as a prolonged decreased sport-
specific performance, usually lasting greater than 2 weeks. It is
characterized by premature fatigability, emotional and mood changes,
lack of motivation, infections, and overuse injuries. Recovery is markedly
longer and variable among affected athletes, sometimes taking months
before the athlete returns to baseline performance
FACTORS AFFECTING MUSCLE PERFORMANCE
Fiber Type
• Sedentary men and women and young children possess 45%to 55% slow-twitch fi
bers. Persons who achieve high levels of sport profi ciency have the fiber
predominance and distributions characteristic of their sport.
• For example, those who train for endurance sports have a higher distribution of
slow-twitch fibers in the significant muscles, and sprint athletes have a
predominance of fast-twitch fibers. Other studies show that men and women
who perform in middle-distance events have an approximately equal percentage
of the two types of muscle fi bers. Any resistive rehabilitation program should be
based on the probable distribution of fiber type of the individual. Clear-cut
distinctions between fiber type composition and athletic performance are true
for elite athletes. A person’s fiber composition is not the sole determinant of
performance. Performance capacity is the end result of many physiologic,
biochemical, and neurologic components, not simply the result of a single factor
such as muscle fiber type.
Fiber Diameter
• Although the different fiber types show clear differences in contraction speed,
the force developed in a maximal static action is independent of the fiber type
but is related to the fiber’s cross-sectional diameter. Because type I (slow) fibers
tend to have smaller diameters than type II (fast) fibers, a high percentage of
type I fibers is believed to be associated with a smaller muscle diameter and
therefore lower force development capabilities.
Muscle Size
• When adult muscles are trained at intensities that exceed 60% to 70% of their
maximum force-generating capacity, the muscle increases in cross-sectional area
and force production capability. The increase in muscle size may result from
increases in fiber size (i.e., hypertrophy), fi ber number (i.e.,hyperplasia),
interstitial connective tissue, or some combination of these factors. Although the
major mechanism for increased muscle size in adults is hypertrophy, ongoing
controversy surrounds evidence of hyperplasia. Mammalian skeletal muscle does
possess a population of reserve or satellite cells that, when activated, can replace
damaged fibers with new fibers. A mechanism exists for the generation of new
fibers in the adult animal. Scientific models of exercise and stretch overload have
shown significant increases in fiber number. The mechanisms for fiber
hyperplasia probably are the result of satellite cell proliferation and longitudinal
fiber splitting
• Despite few investigations of the effect of strength training on interstitial
connective tissue, it appears that, because interstitial connective tissue occupies
a relatively small proportion of the total muscle volume, its potential to
contribute substantial changes in muscle size is limited.
• Force-Velocity Relationship
• Muscle can adjust its active force to precisely match the applied load. This
property is based on the fact that active force continuously adjusts to the speed
at which the contractile system moves. When the load is small, the active force
can be made correspondingly small by increasing the speed of shortening
appropriately. When the load is high, the muscle increases its active force to the
same level by slowing the speed of shortening (Fig. 5-2).Slowing the speed of
contraction allows a patient time to develop more tension during concentric
contractions. This principle is evident during resistive exercise in the water, where
the water’s viscosity slows limb movement, allowing more time for tension
development. However, during eccentric contractions, increased speed of
lengthening produces more tension. This appears to provide a safety mechanism
for limbs excessively loaded. Increasing the speed of a concentric contraction
significantly lowers the amount of concentric torque developed. In contrast,
increasing the speed of an eccentric contraction increases the amount of torque
developed until a plateau speed is reached.
• Length-Tension Relationship
• A muscle’s capacity to produce force depends on the length at which
the muscle is held with maximum force delivered near the muscle’s
normal resting length (Fig. 5-3). The relationship between strength
and length is called the length-tension property of muscle. The
number of sarcomeres in series determines the distance through
which the muscle can shorten and the length at which it produces
maximum force. Sarcomere number is not fi xed, and in adult muscle,
this number can increase or decrease (Fig. 5-4). Regulation of
sarcomere number is an adaptation to changes in the functional
length of a muscle.
• Length-associated changes can be induced by postural malalignment
or immobilization. In muscles chronically
• maintained in a shortened range because of faulty posture or immobilization,
sarcomeres are lost, and the remaining sarcomeres adapt to a length that restores
homeostasis; the new length enables maximum tension development at the new
immobilized, shortened position. For example, people who spend most of the day
sitting can develop adaptive shortening of their hip flexor muscles. These muscles
need to be stretched to avoid chronic shortening. In muscles immobilized or
posturally held in a lengthened position, sarcomeres are added, and maximum
tension is developed at the new increased length. This may be true of people at
workstations where the scapular retractor muscles are lengthened due to thoracic
kyphosis and a chronically protracted scapula. When a cast is removed or posture
restored, the sarcomere number returns to normal. The stimulus for sarcomere
length changes may be the amount of tension along the myofibril or the
myotendon junction, with high tension leading to an addition of sarcomeres and
low tension to a subtraction of sarcomeres.
• The clinical implication of the length-tension relationship is that the evaluation of
muscle “strength” must be reconsidered. Muscles that tend to be shortened (e.g.,
hip flexors) may test as strong as normal-length muscles, because the manual
muscle test position is a shortened position.Conversely, the lengthened muscle
(e.g., gluteus medius on the high iliac crest side) tests weak, because the manual
• muscle test occurs at a relatively shortened range, which is an insufficient
position. According to animal studies,26 the short muscles should develop
the least peak tension, followed by the normal-length muscle and the
lengthened muscle, which develops the greatest peak tension (Fig. 5-5). This
finding reflects the number of sarcomeres in series. The lengthened muscle
may be interpreted as weak although it is capable of producing substantial
tension at the appropriate point in the range. This phenomena is called
positional strength. A muscle should be tested at multiple points in the
range to determine whether the muscle is positionally weak or weak
throughout the range. See Building Block 5-2.
• The emphasis of therapeutic exercise intervention should be on restoring
normal length and tension development capability at the appropriate point
in the range, rather than just strengthening the muscle. The positionally
weak muscle should be strengthened in the shortened range, and the weak
muscle should be strengthened dynamically throughout the range.
• Muscle Architecture
The arrangement of the contractile components affects the contractile
properties of the muscle dramatically. The more sarcomere lie in series,
the longer the muscle will be, the more sarcomere lie in parallel, the
larger the cross-sectional area of the muscle will be. These two basic
architectural patterns affect the contractile properties of the muscles in
the following ways:
● The force the muscle can produce is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional area.
● The velocity and working excursion of the muscle are proportional to
the length of the muscle.
• Generally, muscles with shorter fibers and a larger crosssectional area
are designed to produce force, whereas muscles with long fi bers are
designed to produce excursion and velocity.
• For example, the quadriceps muscle contains shorter myofi brils and
appears to be specialized for force production, whereas the sartorius
muscle has longer fibers and a smaller cross-sectional area and is
better suited for high excursion
• Muscular strength: the ability of muscle to exert force
• Muscular endurance: the abilityof muscle to continue
to perform without fatigue
• Resistance exercise is any form of active exercise in which dynamic or
static muscle contraction is resisted by an outside force applied
manually or mechanically.
• Resistance exercise, also referred to as resistance training, is an
essential element of rehabilitation programs for persons with
impaired function and an integral component of conditioning
programs for those who wish to promote or maintain health and
physical well-being, potentially enhance performance of motor skills,
and prevent or reduce the risk of injury and disease
• Overload Principle
Description
A guiding principle of exercise prescription that has been one of the foundations on
which the use of resistance exercise to improve muscle performance is based is the
overload principle. Simply stated, if muscle performance is to improve, a load that
exceeds the metabolic capacity of the muscle must be applied; that is, the muscle
must be challenged to perform at a level greater than that to which it is
accustomed.If the demands remain constant after the muscle has adapted, the
level of muscle performancecan be maintained but not increased.
• Application of the Overload Principle
The overload principle focuses on the progressive loading of muscle by
manipulating, for example, the intensity or volume of exercise. Intensity of
resistance exercise refers to how much weight (resistance) is imposed on the
muscle, whereas volume encompasses variables such as repetitions, sets, or
frequency of exercise, any one or more of which can be gradually adjusted to
increase the demands on the muscle.
• In a strength training program, the amount of resistance applied to
the muscle is incrementally and progressively increased. For
endurance training, more emphasis is placed on increasing the
time a muscle contraction is sustained or the number of repetitions
performed than on increasing resistance.
•PRECAUTION:
• To ensure safety, the extent and progression of overload must
always be applied in the context of the underlying pathology, age
of the patient, stage of tissue healing, fatigue, and the overall
abilities and goals of the patient. The muscle and related body
systems must be given time to adapt to the demands of an
increased load or repetitions before the load or number of
repetitions is again increased.
Fatigue
• Fatigue is a complex phenomenon that affects muscle performance and must be considered
in a resistance training program. Fatigue has a variety of definitions that are based on the
type of fatigue being addressed.
Muscle (local) fatigue. Most relevant to resistance exercise is the phenomenon of skeletal
muscle fatigue. Muscle (local) fatigue—the diminished response of muscle to a repeated
stimulus—is reflected in a progressive decrement in the amplitude of motor unit potentials.
This occurs during exercise when a muscle repeatedly contracts statically or dynamically
against an imposed load. This acute physiological response to exercise is normal and
reversible. It is characterized by a gradual decline in the force-producing capacity of the
neuromuscular system,That is, a temporary state of exhaustion (failure), leading to a decrease
in muscle strength.The diminished response of the muscle is caused by a combination of
factors, which include:
• Disturbances in the contractile mechanism of the muscle itself because of a decrease in
energy stores, insufficient oxygen, and a build-up of H +
• Inhibitory (protective) influences from the central nervous System
• Possibly a decrease in the conduction of impulses at the myoneural junction, particularly in
fast-twitch fibers
• Threshold for fatigue. Threshold for fatigue is the level of
exercise that cannot be sustained indefinitely. A patient’s
threshold for fatigue could be noted as the length of time a
contraction is maintained or the number of repetitions of an
exercise that initially can be performed. This sets a baseline
from which adaptive changes in physical performance can be
measured.