ELECTRICAL MACHINES

B MTUNZI
We will have a quick outline of AC theory and magnetic
circuits(Hysterisis, hysterisis loss, eddy current losses,
core losses), the aim of this course is to provide the
basic concepts needed to understand how an electric
machine works and how it is applied in the industry.
Introduction
 In this course we will look at AC
theory ; Magnetic circuits;
Transformers; Electromechanical
energy conversion;Synchronous
Machines;Induction Motor and
Direct Current Machines :
 Topics of Discussion
 Ac Theory
 Review on fields’ theory
 Transformers
 Electromechanical Energy Conversion
 Synchronous Machine
 Induction Motor
 Direct Current Machines
AC THEORY
 We will review electrical
components: R;L;C and
phasors, real and reactive
power, power factor
 We will also study three phase
systems :Star and Delta
connections, line and 3 phase
power.
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 Impedance Resistance
 Power (heat) out of resistance P=R×I2
 Resistance uses only active (real) power
 Symbol R
 Units Ohms 
 Suppose a sinusoidal voltage is applied
 By Ohm’s law the instantaneous current will be
 i=Vm/RSint; Im=Vm/R
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 Impedance Inductance
 Any conductor with current has inductance.
 Inductance is high in devices containing coils
such as motors.
 In inductive devices energy is stored within the
magnetic field.
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 Let the current taken by the circuit be : i  I m Sint
 This current produces a self induced emf in the
di
circuit given by e  L l
dt
 at any instant there are two voltages present in the
circuit , one is the applied voltage and the other is
the induced voltage el by KVL: v e l  0
di d ( I m Sint )
v  el  L L
dt dt
 v  LI m Cost  LI m Sin(t  90 0 )
 Vm Sin(t  90 0 )
 AC THEORY CONT’D

 This shows that there is a phase difference of 900

between voltage and current Hence V leads I by
90 deg  Vm  LI m
 2 * V  L 2 * I
V
  L  X L
I
 The quantity L is the ratio of the r.m.s voltage to
r.m.s current in purely inductive circuits,the
inductive reactance is XL.
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 Impedance Capacitance
 In capacitors the energy is stored in the electric
field.
 The voltage across a capacitor can not change
instantaneously so capacitors are useful in DC
voltage supplies.
 The AC supply to the capacitor is given by
v  Vm Sin t
 The current in the circuit at any instant is
dq d (Cv) d (Vm Sint )
i  C
dt dt dt
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 i  CVm Sin (t  90 0 )  I m Sin (t  90 0 )

 Capacitive reactance is given by :

V 1
C 2 * V  2 * I    X c
I C
 AC THEORY CONT’D
 Phase relationship between V and I in L
and C circuits
 It should be noted that in an inductive circuits
the current lags voltage by 900 and in a
capacitive circuits the current leads the
voltage by 900. These relationships are very
important in drawing phasor diagrams . The
following word can be used to remember the
relationships CIVIL, (CIV)- in C ,I Leads V
and (VIL)-in L,V leads I.
 EXAMPLE
 Write down the the frequency,the r.m.s and the peak values
of a voltage wave expressed as : v  14.1Sin1000t
Write down the expressions for the current flowing when
this voltage is applied across:
 )a 5 resistor

 )a 1mH inductor of negligible resistance and

 )a 150F capacitor

 Sketch the waveforms of these currents showing clearly :

 )the phase relationship of each current to the applied
voltage,
 )the peak value for each current.
 SOLUTION
 Vm=14.1; 2f=1000 f=500Hz
a)the current through the resistor is :
Vm 14.1
iR  sin t  sin 1000t
R 5
b)the current
Vthrough 1mH inductor
 is :
iL  m
Sin ( 2ft  )
Xl 2

L  1mH  1 *10 3 H  X l  2fL  3.142

 SOLUTION CONT’D
 Therefore
14.1  
 il  * Sin (1000t  )  4.48Sin (1000t  ) A
3.142 2 2

 the current through 150F is:

Vm  
ic   Sin (2ft  )  6.65Sin (1000t  ) A
Xc 2 2
 SERIES R-L CIRCUIT
 Let V= supply voltage; I= Circuit current; VR= voltage drop
across R=RI; VL=voltage across L; XLI=2fLI; L=phase
angle between I and V
 Since I is common to both elements R and L this is used as
reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and VL
leads by 900. The voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and
VL. That is: V= VR + VL.
 Fig b is called the voltage triangle for a series R-L circuit
 SERIES R-L CIRC CONT’D
 Fig b is called the voltage triangle for a series R-L
circuit.
 From the voltage triangle the resultant voltage is
given as : V  VR  VL  ( RI )  ( X L I )
2 2 2 2 2

V
 ZL   R2  X
2
L
I
 This is the impedance of a series R-L circuit
VR
Cos 
V
 Impedance Triangle
 Dividing each side of the voltage triangle by current
I, gives impedance triangle. See fig c below.

 Series R-C Circuit

V
 Zc   R  X c
2 2

I
 Series R-L-C Circuit
 The phasor sum V=VR + VL + VC
 The voltages VL and VC are in opposite directions
 The resultant of these voltages is the arithmetic
difference between them.
V 2  VR2  (Vl  Vc ) 2  ( RI ) 2  ( X l I  X c I ) 2  I 2 [ R 2  ( X l  X c ) 2 ]
 If Xl<Xc the figs are inverted
 POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS
 Power in a dc circuit is given2 by :
V
Pdc  VI  I R 
2

R
 In an ac circuit the power at any instant is called
instantaneous power: p  vi
 Since the voltage and current are continuously
changing in an ac circuit the power values will
also change with time.By definition the average
value of a varying power p is the steady value of
power Pav which in period T would transfer the
same energy W.
 POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS Cont’d
T T
 1
PavT  W   pdt  Pav   pdt
0
T0
 by convention ,P always means average power
T 2 2
1 1 1
   vi

P pdt  pdt 
T 0
2 0
2 0
 this average power is also called active power or
true power measured in Watts; kW or MW.
 In a purely resistive circuit the voltage and current
are in phase and may be given as : v  V Sin
m 
 and i  I m Sin implying that instant power is
1
p  vi  Vm I m Sin   Vm I m (1  Cos2 )
2

2
 POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS Cont’d
 If a power waveform is plotted it can be noted
that the power remains positive irrespective of
the direction of the current in the circuit.

 The power flow is only in the direction from the

source to the load resistance R. The energy
received by the R is called active energy
 POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS Cont’d
 It is consumed in R and appears in the form of
heat. The rate of this energy consumption is the
active power and can be determined as follows
2 2
1 1 1
PR 
2 0 pd  2 0 2 Vm I m (1  Cos2 )  VI
 In a purely resistive circuit,
2
V
VR  V  RI  PR  I 2 R 
R
 Power In A Pure Inductance
 In a purely inductive circuit the voltage leads the
current by 900, and is represented as :

 Instantaneous power is given by p=vi

Vm I m
 Vm I m Sin(  90 ).Sin  Vm I m CosSin 
0
Sin 2
2

 Active power PL is:

2 2
1 1 1
PL 
2 
0
pd 
2 0 2 Vm I m Sin 2  0
 Power In A Pure Inductance Cont’d
 From 00 to 900, the power curve is above the
horizontal axis and p is positive. The circuit draws
from the source. The energy is stored in the
magnetic field.
 From 900 to 1800 the power curve is below the
horizontal axis and p is negative. The previously
stored energy is returned to the source
 The energy dissipated
T
by the inductor is given by
T2 2
WL = 2 2
VL xI
0 PL dt  0 VL xIxSin2tdt  2f
 note T2 is the period of power curve =T1/2 T2/2
=T1/4 and f=1/T1.
 Active, Apparent, Reactive Power (P,S,Q,PF)
 QUANTITY DEFINITION SI UNIT
 Active Power (Real Power) P = V I cos(  ) Watt
 Apparent Power (Complex Power) S = V I VA
 Reactive Power (Imaginary Power) VAR Q=
(S 2-P 2)
 Power Factor PF = P/VI PU or %
 PF = cos( ) See figure below for an RL circuit
 a)circuit diag, b)phasor diag,c)impedance tr,d)power tr
 Equations for series RL circuits
 Define series impedance Z = R + jXL
 where XL =  L  and  = 2  f rad/sec
 VS = I Z Volts or I = VS / Z A
 Example: R = 4, L = 5 mH , f = 60 Hz
 XL = 2 ×  × 60 × 5 × 10-3 = 377 × 5 × 10-3 = 1.885
 Z = 4 + j 1.885 = 4.42  25.20
 If VS = 120 V  00
 then I = 120 V  00 / (4.42   25.20 )= 27.1 A  -25.20
 Complex Power Components

 If VS =120 V  00,I = 27.1 A  - 25.20, = 25.20,Z =4 +j1.89 

 P = VSIcos  = 120 × 27.1 × cos 25.20 = 2942 W = 2.94 kW
 S = VS I = 120 × 27.1 = 3252 VA = 3.25 kVA
 Q = (S2 -P2) = (3.252 - 2.942) = 1.39 kVAR

 .
OR P = I2 R = 27 12 × 4 = 2.94 kW

 Q = I2 XL = 27.12 × 1.89 = 1.39 kVAR

 S = I2 Z = 27.12 × 4.42 = 3.25 kVA
 Equations for Series R C Circuits
 Define series impedance Z = R - jXC 
 where XC = (1/  C)  and  = 2  f rad/sec
 VS = I Z Volts or I = VS / Z A
 Example: R = 4  , C = 500 µF , f = 60 Hz
 XC = 1 / (2 ×  × 60 × 500 × 10-6 = 1 / (377 × 500 × 10-6 =
5.305
 Z = 4 - j 5.305 = 6.64   - 53.00
 If VS = 120 V  00
 I = (120 V 00 / (6.64   - 53.00= 18.1 A  53.00
 For complex power calculations the treatment is the same
as above
 Parallel R-C Circuits

 (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram

Example
 Parallel R-L Circuits
 The Equations for Parallel (Shunt) R L Circuits
 Define shunt impedance Z = (R × jXL) / (R +jXL)
 where XL = L  and  = 2f rad/sec
 VS = IS Z Volts or IS = VS / Z A
 Power factor
 Supply authorities use tariffs in charging for electricity,this
encourages consumers to improve the power factor of their
installations. There is a charge referred to as the maximum
demand charge (MD), that is based on the apparent power
drawn by a consumer.A poor power factor could result in a
higher MD charge. The second tariff is based on the actual
or real energy consumed that is W or kWh.
 We know from the equation P  VI .Cos it can be
noted that the current I is affected by the power factor .
Thus a given load takes more current at a lower power
factor.
 Disadvantages of a lower Power factor
 Higher currents that require larger cables, switch gears ,transformers
etc. the capital cost of the equipment is increased.
 Higher currents lead to higher copper losses in the system
and the efficiency of the system is reduced that is the
running cost in the system is increased.
 Higher currents produce larger voltage drops in the cables and other
apparatus. This results in poor voltage regulation
 The tariffs at a large consumer consists of two parts:
 Total Cost =Cost for maximum Demand + Cost for energy
Used. C  C1 (kVA)  C2 (kWh)
 Where C1 =Cost per maximim demand in KVA
 C2 = Cost per kWh used.
 C = Total cost paid by the consumer.
 Causes of Low Power Factor
 Inductive loads. The current in the inductive loads lags
behind the voltage . The power factor is therefore lagging.
The important inductive loads responsible for low power
factor s are :
 )most ac motors are of induction type . Three phase
induction motors operate at a power factor of about
0.8 lagging at full load. At light loads 0.2-0.3 lagging.
 )A transformer draws magnetising current from the
supply at normal loads , this current does not affect
the power factor much but at light loads the primary
current power factor is low.
 )Industrial heating furnaces, welding equipment etc.
 Power Factor Improvement
 If power factor is low or poor, it is necessary to improve or
correct it .The basic principle is to inject a leading current
into the circuit so as to neutralise the effect of a lagging
current.The power factor may be improved by the following
methods :
 )By using the static or fixed capacitors :-Capacitors
are applied at the terminals of inductive devices
(motors and transformers); applied at the busbars
supplying numerous small motors and inductive
appliances.
 )By using automatic capacitor banks:-Automatically
controlled stepped bank of capacitors are used.
 )By using synchronous motors.
 Power factor Correction By Static Capacitors
 Consider an inductive load consisting of a resistor R and an
inductor L connected to an ac Supply see fig below;

 Let V= Supply voltage I= load current

  = phase angle by which I lags V and Cos = original
power factor
 Let capacitor C be placed in in parallel with the load. It will
take a leading current IC from the supply .See the figure
below for the circuit and phasor diagrams.
 The total current drawn from the supply will equal to the
phasor sum of I and Ic.
 Power factor Correction Cont’d

 Conclusions :
 The phasor angle of I1 is 1 , 1< hence Cos1 is greater
than Cos. In other words the power factor has improved.
 Resolving I1 and I we have I Cos =I1 Cos1 and the
new supply current will be given by I1 this shows that the
new supply current I1 < I since cos1 >cos.
 .Again Icos =I1 cos1  VI cos =VI1cos1 or P= P1.The
power from the supply has not changed.
 Power Factor Correction Cont’d
 The phasor sum of I and Ic may result in a supply current
that is in phase with the voltage , which is a condition for
unity power factor.

V
I C  ISin   I N Sin1   CV  2fCV
XC

 Hence the required capacitance for a desired power factor

may be calculated. Also Qc =VIc =V2C can be used to
determine the capacitance
 Example:A single phase 50Hz motor takes 20A at 0.75
power factor lagging from a 230V sinusoidal supply.
Calculate: i) the kVAr and ii) the capacitance of a capacitor to
be connected in parallel to raise the power factor to 0.9 lagging.
Determine the new supply current
 Solution

 Solution Cont’d

 Three Phase Systems
 Generation of a Three Phase Supply
 The principle applied to single phase generators is used on three
phase electricity generators.

 When the rotor is rotated in anticlockwise direction at a constant

angular velocity a sinusoidal voltage is generated across each coil.
Since the coils are rotating at the same angular velocity (=2f ), the
generated voltages have the same frequency. Also since the coils are
identical the generated voltages have the same magnitudes , but there
is a phase difference of 120deg between the voltages. The generated
voltages are given by:Vaa’= VR= Vm Sint; Vbb’= VY= Vm Sin(t-1200 )
 Vcc’= VB= Vm Sin(t-2400) = Vm Sin(t+1200) Van00;Vbn -1200; Vcn
+1200
 Three Phase Systems Cont’d
 To form a single three phase ac source there are two methods of
interconnecting the three phases . These are called Star and delta
connections.
 Star Connected Three Phase Systems

 The common point is referred to as a neutral

 This neutral provides a common point for the currents in the three
phases. See fig below for the connection and phasor.
 Three Phase Systems Cont’d
 The voltages between the lines say R and Y is referred to as the line
voltage, while that between line and the neutral is called the phase
voltage.

 The line voltages are obtained by phasor addition of the two

voltages Vrn and Vyn and this is achieved by extending YN
backwards
 Phasor Addition

 STAR CONNECTED RESISTIVE
LOADS

 Example

 Star Connected Reactive Loads

 Example

Delta Connected Three Phase Systems
 This is also known as the mesh connection.
 The three phase windings are connected as shown in fig below:
 The finish of one winding is connected to the start of the next (R’to
Y,Y’ to B, and B’ to R)

 Since the voltages are all acting in the same direction around the
mesh it may be thought there is circulating current. However this is
not the case, at any instant some voltage is +ve and some -ve.
 The resultant of the voltage around any loop at any instant is in fact

zero see three phase waveforms.

 If the resultant voltage around the loop is zero then there will be
no circulating current.
 Delta Connected Resistive Loads

 Example
 Three resistances each of 20, are connected in delta to a three
phase 415V supply. Calculate :
a) the phase current

b) the line current

c) the total power consumed

 Solution
a) Iph= Vph/ Rph =415/20 =20.8A
b) IL . IL =36.0A

c) The power consumed per phase = Vphase * Iphase =415 *20.8

=8630 W
therefore total power consumed =3 * 8630 =25.9kW
 Delta Connected Reactive Loads

 Example
 Three coils are connected in delta to a three phase
415V, 50Hz supply. Each coil has a resistance of 20
and an inductive reactance of 15.
 Calculate:

a) the impedance per phase

b) the line current and

c) the total power consumed

 Solution

Use of Star and Delta Connections
 The normal consumer three phase line voltage is 415V and this
voltage is used to drive many of the three phase induction motors
used in industry.
 For domestic use i.e heating, lighting and small scale single phase
motors, this voltage is dangerously high and a lower voltage of 240V
is used and is found between a line and neutral.
 A three phase four wire system is used for electricity distribution
and any single phase consumer will be connected between any one
line and neutral.
 For the transmission of a three phase supply a four wire system
would not be economical on cable cost and therefore a three–wire
delta connected system is used.
 Transmission is carried out at high voltage and three phase step

down transformers are used to transform the voltage down to a level

suitable for distribution.
 This requires the use of delta to star step down transformers.
 Power , VA and Var in three Phase
System.

 Solution

 Unbalanced Three Phase Systems
 In balanced three phase systems it was noted that the line currents
are always the same.
 If these conditions do not apply as may be the case under certain

loading or faulty conditions then the system is said to be

unbalanced.
 Consider an unbalanced four wire star –connected load shown
below:

 The phase voltages are equal in magnitude and 120 apart as shown
in figure above. The neutral current is the resultant current of the
phasor addition of the three line currents.
 Example
 A workshop is provided with a 440V, 50Hz three phase four wire
supply and feeds the following loads between each of the three
separate phases and neutral:
a) four single phase induction motors each rated at 1kW and with a

lagging power factor of 0.8 connected to a red phase,

b) a lighting load of 2kW at unity power factor connected to the

yellow phase,
c) a heating load of 4kW at unity power factor connected to the blue

phase.
 Calculate the current in each line and the neutral current. Assume
that the phase voltage is 250V.
 Solution

 Solution
 IX =4A and IY =-5.08A Now IN is given by : =(5.082+42 )1/2=6.46A
 and =tan-1(5.08/4) =51.80 lagging the red phasor voltage