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Big Bang
The universe began with all matter and energy collected into one incredibly hot and
dense point in space.
Steady State
Proposed by Fred Hoyle in 1948.
The universe is the density it always has been.
The universe is expanding, but new matter is created in the gaps formed.
On BBC radio's Third Programme broadcast at 1830 GMT on 28 March 1949, he tried
to insult the other theory with the name, “Big Bang”.
sodium
potassium
It wasn’t until 1913 until Niels Bohr
explained why elements gave off line spectra
energy α frequency
i.e. high frequency means high energy
red light has a low frequency, blue light is high energy
x
x
x x
x He
H x
Hydrogen Helium
2 → 1 = yellow = medium energy change
3 → 1 = blue = high energy change
2 → 1 = red = low energy change
The continuous spectrum of white light
Boom!
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*
The outer layers are lost in the supernova.
Only the degenerate matter at the centre remains.
This is a small (~20 km across) neutron star.
After the supernova, they can have temperatures of 1011 to 1012 K, but cool to 106 K
within a few years.
The density of the supernova remnant is extremely high (3.7–5.9 x1017 kg m–3 c.f. water
= 1000 kg m–3)
14.7 Understand the balance between neutron pressure and gravity in a neutron star
Electron degeneracy pressure prevents the compression (in a smaller star), but…
Gravity is so large that electrons combine with protons forming neutrons.
These can be squeezed together much tighter (since they are neutral).
Until they are effectively touching and therefore cannot be compressed further.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
f black hole *note the errors on the specification*
If the mass of the core is more than about 3x the mass of the Sun...
Even neutron degeneracy pressure cannot prevent the collapse of the star...
and a black hole forms.
Emission or absorption nebula
Gravity causes collapse
Gravitational energy converted into heat energy ∴ temperature increases
When it gets hot enough, fusion starts to occur
p + p → pn + e+ + v
pn + p → ppb + γ
ppn + ppn → ppnn + p + p
The γ carry the energy outwards and cause radiation pressure
Gravity is still bigger than R.P, so temperatures increase, speeding up fusion → ↑R.P.
When radiation pressure = gravity, temperatures stop increasing
Star is now main sequence
Convective
Zone
Photosphere
Radiative
Zone
Core
Sun-like stars (0.3 – 8 M☉)
Core begins to run out of hydrogen
Fusion slows down
Radiation pressure decreases
Gravity now larger than R.P.
Core collapses and heats up
Heating is insufficient to lead to fusion of He
But the core heats the shell surrounding the core, so that the H present there can fuse
This shell expands. A. Lot. Expanding the entire star with it.
He content of core increases as does its temperature and you get a helium flash
The outer layers surrounding the core are lost as a planetary nebula
~ 1 l.y. across and expanding
The core remains as a white dwarf
Electron pressure stops the core collapsing further (gravity = electron pressure)
Over time, it cools until it is a black dwarf
Large stars (10+ M☉)
Core begins to run out of hydrogen
Fusion slows down
Radiation pressure decreases
Gravity now larger than R.P.
Core heats up
Heating IS now sufficient to lead to fusion of He, producing C
This also provides a new source of heat energy
The shell surrounding the core heats up, fuses H and produces a super giant
Large stars (10+ M☉)
Core fuses He to C
Increasing heat allows further reactions to take place
With each reaction, less energy is released and radiation pressure decreases...
Forcing fusing to occur at faster and faster rates
Eventually, the core runs out of fuel and radiation pressure stops
A supernova occurs
The outer layers are lost as a cloud of expanding gas and dust (~ 10 l.y. across)
A supernova remnant is left behind
Fe → Ni !
Si → Fe
Some others
O → Si
Ne → O
C → Ne
He → C
Large stars (10+ M☉)
What becomes of the core depends on the mass of the star
If the core is smaller than the Chandrasekhar Limit ~ 1.38x M☉ then a white dwarf forms
If the core is smaller than about 3 M☉ then a neutron star remains
Gravity = neutron pressure
If the core is bigger than about 3 M☉ then a black hole forms
14.11 Understand how astronomers study and gather evidence for the existence of black
holes
1. Gravitational lensing.
14.11 Understand how astronomers study and gather evidence for the existence of black
holes
2. Rotational speed of Galaxies.
We will cover this properly when we study planetary systems.
Stars orbiting black holes
3. Effect on stars that get too close.
The outer layers of the star get pulled in towards the black hole and forms an accretion
disk around the black hole.
The material accelerates and heats up.
It gets so hot that X-rays are given off.
What happens when stars get close to black holes
15.2 Know the size and shape of our Galaxy and the location of the Sun, dust, sites of
star formation and globular clusters
Size ≈ 15 kpc radius.
Shape = spiral.
Location of Sun ≈ 10 kpc from centre.
Dust + star formation is found in the spiral arms.
Globular clusters are in a halo. These contain relatively old stars.
6.21 Understand the appearance of the Milky Way from Earth as seen with the naked
eye
15.1 Understand the appearance of the Milky Way from Earth as seen with binoculars or
a small telescope
Galileo, using a telescope, was the first person to explain the Milky Way.
All of the stars in the night skySmall
are inMegellanic
our galaxy.Cloud
Seen from our point of view...
Most of the stars can be found in a fairly narrow, faint patchy band of faint light stretching
across the sky.
“Faint/fuzzy/indistinct”
“Band/arch of light stretching across the sky”
Large
With a telescope, individual Megellanic
stars Cloud
can be seen.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
a spiral
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Spiral
Flattened.
Disk shaped.
These are further sub-divided by assigning letters a, b or c, depending on the strength of
the nuclear bulge and the ‘openness’ of the spiral arms.
Sa have prominent nuclei and tightly wound arms.
Sc have relatively small nuclei and open arms.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
b barred spiral
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Barred spiral
Similar to spiral galaxies.
But, with a bright bar running through the nucleus from which the spiral arms emerge
Again have sub-catagories SBa – SBc.
SBa have tightly wound spiral arms.
SBc have loosely bound arms.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
c elliptical
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Elliptical
Relatively smooth spheroidal distribution of stars showing a gradual decrease in
brightness from the centre outwards
Elliptical galaxies are assigned numbers 0-7 depending on their shape
E0 are almost circular
E7 are highly elongated
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
d irregular
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Irregular
Very little structure or symmetry.
15.7 Know how the different types of galaxies were placed by Hubble on his ‘Tuning
Fork’ diagram
These four galaxy types are often shown together on a “Tuning Fork Diagram” (named
because of its shape):
Irregular galaxies don’t appear on the tuning fork.
Modern tuning forks have S0 in the middle.
Lenticular (S0)
These are recent additions to the list of galaxy types, but are in between elliptical and
spiral galaxies.
Lenticular galaxies are disk galaxies (like spiral galaxies) which have used up or lost
most of their interstellar matter and therefore have very little ongoing star formation.
Old Specification:
Unit 4.2
c recall that the Milky Way is an Sb type galaxy
15.8 Know that the Milky Way is a barred spiral (SBb) type galaxy
15.4 Know that the group of galaxies gravitationally linked to the Milky Way is called the
Local Group
The Local Group is the group of galaxies
close to the Milky Way.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group...
About 50 galaxies (including dwarf galaxies) held together by mutual gravitational
attraction.
About 3 Mpc across.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
a Andromeda Galaxy (M31)
Where do you think it lies on Hubble’s Tuning Fork?
It is an Sb galaxy.
The largest galaxy in the local group, having about one trillion stars, at least twice as
many as the Milky Way.
It is moving towards us.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
b Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC)
The Large Magellanic Cloud
An irregular galaxy.
A satellite of the Milky way.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
b Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC)
The Small Magellanic Cloud
A (dwarf) irregular galaxy.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
c Triangulum Galaxy (M33)
It is an Sc galaxy.
The third largest galaxy in the local group.
15.13 Understand why galaxies are grouped in larger clusters and superclusters
Gravity.
A more complex answer will come after CMB.
Larger clusters = local group and other nearby groups (about 10 MPc across = 5)
Superclusters = groups of clusters
We are part of the Virgo supercluster (our Local Supercluster)
This consists of at least 100 galaxy groups and clusters
The Local Supercluster is one of millions of superclusters in the observable universe
15.14 Understand the main theories for the formation and evolution of galaxies
Nebulae collapse forming stars.
Stars attract each other, gravitationally forming galaxies.
Typically orbiting around a supermassive black hole at the centre.
‘Young’ galaxies are typically spiral.
Spiral galaxies are thought to merge to form elliptical galaxies.
Galaxy formation
15.9 Know that some galaxies emit large quantities of radiation in addition to visible light
15.10 Know that an Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) is powered by matter falling onto a
super-massive black hole
The supermassive black hole is MUCH bigger than the type formed after supernovae.
106 – 109 times bigger!
These form accretion disks.
Which form jets of electrons and protons in beams from the poles of the disk.
These then give out electromagnetic radiation.
LOTS of it.
They are the most luminous objects in the known universe.
In many frequencies, esp. radio and X-ray.
15.11 Know types of active galaxies, including:
a Seyfert galaxies
AGNs fall into two classes:
Radio-quiet AGNs
The main type is Seyfert galaxies:
Usually spiral (or irregular) galaxies with extremely compact but bright nuclei.
Strong and often variable emission of radiation at IR, UV and X-ray frequencies.
15.11 Know types of active galaxies, including:
b quasars
c blazars
AGNs fall into two classes:
Radio Loud AGNs
Typically elliptical and produce more than a million times more radio waves than normal
galaxies. The radio emissions come from symmetrical ‘lobes’
Quasars
Quazsi-stellar radio sources. Emit in all frequencies, esp. UV, X-ray and radio.
Much more later.
Look like VERY luminous stars (rather than extended galaxies)
and Blazars:
BL Lacerta or BL Lac objects. Much closer than quasars, emit in all frequencies but can
vary dramatically in their brightness every day or two.
Their jets are pointing towards us.
13.9 Understand the inverse square relationship between distance and
brightness/intensity
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 1 cm?
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 2 cm?
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 3 cm?
The further away a star is, the dimmer it will appear to be.
Light intensity α 1 / d2
13.1 Understand the astronomical magnitude scale and how apparent magnitude relates
to the brightness of stars as viewed from Earth
The apparent magnitude of a star is related to its brightness.
The brightest stars in the sky are first order magnitude (m = 1)
The dimmest (that can be seen with the naked eye) are sixth magnitude (m = 6)
Ptolemy suggested that stars with m = 1 were twice as bright as m = 2 stars...
Which were twice as bright as m = 3 start etc.
In 1856 it was decided that m = 1 stars were 100 x brighter than m = 6 stars
Therefore m = 1 stars are 5100 x i.e. ~2.5 x brighter than m = 2 stars
Polaris was set as m = 2, but later found to be variable, so it switched to Vega as m = 0
13.1 Understand the astronomical magnitude scale and how apparent magnitude relates
to the brightness of stars as viewed from Earth
Its value will depend on four main factors:
•The total energy radiated by the star (dependent on the star’s size and temperature).
•The distance from the star to us.
•The amount of interstellar dust and gas.
•The amount of light absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere.
13.10 Understand that an angle of one degree (°) comprises 60 minutes of arc (arcmin)
(60’) and that each arcminute is comprised of 60 seconds of arc (arcsec) (60”)
*note the error on the specification*
13.12 Be able to determine astronomical distances using heliocentric parallax
N.B. p is half the overall angle
If p = 1” (arcsec), then d = 1 pc (parsec)
13.11 Understand the term parsec (pc)
A parsec is the distance from the Sun to an astronomical object which has a
parallax angle of one arcsecond
d=1/p
d = distance in parsec
p = half the angular shift in arcsec
13.3 Be able to use the distance modulus formula to determine the absolute (M) or
apparent magnitude (m) of a star, given the distance to the star (d):
M = m + 5 – 5 log d
where d is the distance in parsec
13.2 Understand the term absolute magnitude
The absolute magnitude (M) is defined as the apparent magnitude the star would have
from a standard distance of 10 pc.
13.13 Understand how to use a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram to determine distances to
stars
Using the spectrum of a star, the spectral class (temperature) of a star can be
determined.
The value of M can be read off from the H–R diagram.
m can be determined visually.
M and m can be used to determine d using the distance modulus formula.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
a short/long period
Some stars change their luminosity in a regular way.
Some do this over a short period of time:
Others over a long period of time.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
Cepheid
Gravity pulls He+ in
This heats the He+ is (it is close to the start)...
When hot enough, it starts to ionise He+ → He2+
This makes the atmosphere slowly opaque.
Trapping heat inside.
Which slowly makes it hotter, with more ionisation.
This further heats the star, which expands.
Which cools the star.
Eventually: He2+ → He+
And the atmosphere quickly becomes transparent.
This allows heat to leave.
And the star cools and contracts.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
Cepheid
Dim star.
Quickly becomes luminous.
Gradually becomes less luminous.
Repeat.
13.16 Understand how Cepheid variables can be used to determine distances
There is a strong correlation between luminosity and pulsation period
Hot stars have a long period.
and if we know its mean absolute luminosity (M), we can use:
M = m + 5 – 5 log d
and work out its distance
•Determine the time period (of the Cepheid variable)
•Use period-luminosity law to determine (mean) M
•Use distance-modulus formula and observed (mean) m to calculate d
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies of roughly equal mass, e.g. 90 Antiope
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with a difference in mass, e.g. Pluto and Charon
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with a major difference in mass, e.g. Earth and Moon
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with an extreme difference in mass, e.g. Sun and Earth
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with similar mass and elliptical orbits
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
Clusters:
We will meet globular and open clusters later...
But they are both around 30 light years across and contain stars that are gravitationally
influencing each other.
13.15 Understand the causes of variability in the light curve of eclipsing binary stars
13.18 Understand how the period of an eclipsing binary star can be deduced from its
light curve
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
d novae and supernovae
Nova:
Typically when a white dwarf gets too close to a another (main sequence or red giant)
and accretes matter forming an atmosphere of hydrogen.
This hydrogen is heated enough to cause a sudden fusion event, releasing a huge
amount of energy and blowing the atmosphere away.
Luminosity increases rapidly, with a slow decrease over <25 to >80 days
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
d novae and supernovae
Supernova:
Similar to novae: rapid increase and slow decrease (but both over longer times)
But, there are lots of different types of supernovae:
Average peak
Approximate Days to peak Days from peak to
Type absolute
energy (foe) luminosity 10% luminosity
magnatude
Ia −19 1 approx. 19 around 60
Ib/c (faint) around −15 0.1 15–25 unknown
Ib around −17 1 15–25 40–100
Ic around −16 1 15–25 40–100
Ic (bright) to −22 above 5 roughly 25 roughly 100
II-b around −17 1 around 20 around 100
II-L around −17 1 around 13 around 150
II-P (faint) around −14 0.1 roughly 15 unknown
Plateau then
II-P around −16 1 around 15
around 50
IIn around −17 1 12–30 or more 50–150
IIn (bright) to −22 above 5 above 50 above 100
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
c radial velocity
How quickly something is moving towards or away from us on Earth.
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
c radial velocity
The Doppler Effect: the apparent change in frequency of light (and other waves) due
to the relative movement of the source and observer.
This is fine, but what frequency was the light emitted by a star?
If we look at the spectrum of a star:
The spectrum will have absorption lines on it.
These lines correspond to the energy required to make e–
jump between shells.
If we measure these spectral lines in a laboratory, the lines
are in different places:
The wavelength of the star’s lines are higher:
This increase in wavelength can be measured and the
radial velocity required to produce this increase can be
calculated...
16.3 Be able to use the formula:
λ – λ0 / λ0 = v / c
where λ is the observed wavelength, λ0 is the emitted wavelength, v is the radial
velocity of the source, c is the speed of light
The thing you are likely to get confused is: which λ is which.
Remember than the 0 in λ0 means the speed at which the wavelength is measured, i.e.
in the laboratory.
15.3 Understand how 21 cm radio waves, rather than visible light, are used to
determine the structure and rotation of our Galaxy
‘Visible’ light cannot penetrate the gas and dust that our galaxy is mostly made up of.
1420 MHz microwaves (21 cm) can penetrate the dust (and the Earth’s atmosphere)
but is absorbed and emitted by hydrogen (the gas).
This frequency of light is red and blue shifted by the galaxy rotating...
so we can see what the Milky Way is made of and how fast it is rotating.
16.1 Know that observations of galaxies outside the Local Group show that light is
shifted to longer wavelengths (redshift)
Andromeda is moving towards us, so the spectral light is of shorter wavelength
i.e. blueshifted.
Galaxies that are further away are ALL redshifted.
Hubble data
16.2 Understand that redshift is caused by galaxies receding from us
16.5 Be able to use the relationship between distance and redshift of distant galaxies
(Hubble’s law) including the formula:
v = H0 d
where v is the radial velocity of the recession of the galaxy, H0 is the Hubble constant
and d is the distance of the galaxy from Earth.
H can be estimated from the gradient of the line
H = Hubble’s constant ≈ 67.80 kms–1 / Mpc ± 0.77
16.6 Understand the estimation of the age and size of the Universe using the value of
the Hubble constant
To calculate the age of the Universe:
Convert H into SI units
Then invert
4.55 x 1017 / 3.2 x 107 = 14.4 x 109 = 14.4 billion years old
Current accepted answer = 13.798 ×109 ± 0.037 years old
16.6 Understand the estimation of the age and size of the Universe using the value of
the Hubble constant
To calculate the size of the Universe:
Assume that the universe is expanding at the speed of light.
Multiply the age by the speed.