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GCSE Astronomy 9-1

Paper 1: Naked-eye Astronomy


Written examination: 1 hour and 45 minutes
50% of the qualification
100 marks
Content overview
● Topic 1 – Planet Earth
● Topic 2 – The lunar disc
● Topic 3 – The Earth-Moon-Sun system
● Topic 4 – Time and the Earth-Moon-Sun cycles
● Topic 5 – Solar System observation
● Topic 6 – Celestial observation
● Topic 7 – Early models of the Solar System
● Topic 8 – Planetary motion and gravity
GCSE Astronomy 9-1

Paper 2: Telescopic Astronomy


Written examination: 1 hour and 45 minutes
50% of the qualification
100 marks
Content overview
● Topic 9 – Exploring the Moon
● Topic 10 – Solar astronomy
● Topic 11 – Exploring the Solar System
● Topic 12 – Formation of planetary systems
● Topic 13 – Exploring starlight
● Topic 14 – Stellar evolution
● Topic 15 – Our place in the Galaxy
● Topic 16 – Cosmology
GCSE Astronomy 9-1
The textbook
● Topic 1 – Planet Earth
● Topic 6 – Celestial observation
● Topic 2 – The lunar disc
● Topic 9 – Exploring the Moon
● Topic 11 – Exploring the Solar System
● Topic 5 – Solar System observation
● Topic 7 – Early models of the Solar System
● Topic 8 – Planetary motion and gravity
● Topic 10 – Solar astronomy
● Topic 3 – The Earth-Moon-Sun system
● Topic 4 – Time and the Earth-Moon-Sun cycles
● Topic 12 – Formation of planetary systems
● Topic 13 – Exploring starlight
● Topic 14 – Stellar evolution
● Topic 15 – Our place in the Galaxy
● Topic 16 – Cosmology
GCSE Astronomy 9-1
My plan
● Topic 16 – Cosmology
● Topic 14 – Stellar evolution
● Topic 13 – Exploring starlight
● Topic 15 – Our place in the Galaxy
● Topic 12 – Formation of planetary systems
● Topic 1 – Planet Earth
● Topic 9 – Exploring the Moon
● Topic 7 – Early models of the Solar System
● Topic 8 – Planetary motion and gravity
● Topic 2 – The lunar disc
● Topic 3 – The Earth-Moon-Sun system
● Topic 4 – Time and the Earth-Moon-Sun cycles
● Topic 5 – Solar System observation
● Topic 11 – Exploring the Solar System
● Topic 10 – Solar astronomy
● Topic 6 – Celestial observation
GCSE Astronomy 9-1
How this PowerPoint will be laid out:
Lines in orange are the specification
Notes in white explain the specification
Notes in yellow are not required
The Big Bang
Extrapolation of the expansion of the Universe backwards in time using general relativity
yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past.
The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation. In the most
common models, the Universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an
incredibly high energy density, huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly
expanding and cooling.
Photons had sufficient energy to convert (E = mc2) into matter and antimatter.
These particles and antiparticles would combine releasing the energy back again.
At about 10-16 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons
and neutrons (and their antimatter equivalents).
The Big Bang
As the temperature dropped, there was no longer enough energy to create new proton-
antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons-antineutrons), so a mass annihilation immediately
followed.
Just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons remained and none of their
antiparticles.
A similar process happened for electrons and positrons.
A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion kelvin,
neutrons combined with protons to form the Universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a
process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but most protons remained un-combined as
hydrogen nuclei.
The Big Bang
The Universe further cooled.
After about 379,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly
hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space
largely unimpeded.
Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed
matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas
clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.
16.7 Understand how the expansion of the Universe supports both the Big Bang theory
and the Steady State theory

The main (non-religious) theories:

Big Bang
The universe began with all matter and energy collected into one incredibly hot and
dense point in space.

Steady State
Proposed by Fred Hoyle in 1948.
The universe is the density it always has been.
The universe is expanding, but new matter is created in the gaps formed.

Diagram on page 68.

On BBC radio's Third Programme broadcast at 1830 GMT on 28 March 1949, he tried
to insult the other theory with the name, “Big Bang”.

How will the universe end


14.9 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
similar mass to the Sun, including:
a emission and absorption nebula
Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed
matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas
clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.
Diagram on page 60.
Interstellar material is mostly ionised gas, e.g. 11H+
Molecular clouds contain molecules of gas, e.g. H2
Absorption Nebulae
Clouds of gas/dust that is so thick, light cannot pass through – obscuring whatever is
behind it.
Star formation is occurring.
The Dark Horse Nebula:
Reflection (not on spec.) Nebulae
Do not produce light themselves.
Witch Head reflection nebula:
Lit up (mostly) by Rigel (β Ori)
Emission Nebulae: again forming stars
Nearby stars ionise the gas, making it glow.

The "Pillars of Creation" from the Eagle


Nebula.
Ant Nebula
Hourglass Nebula
Red Square Nebula
Ring Nebula
Helix Nebula
Orion nebula Tarantula nebula
412 pc away 49 kpc away
If it were as far away as the Orion nebula.
it would cast shadows on Earth.
14.4 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages
in the life cycle of a star with a mass similar to the Sun
Formation
Gravity pulled parts of the molecular cloud together into knots called protostars.
The gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, which is converted
into heat energy.
Radiation pressure = 0
Eventually, when the centre reaches about 15 million kelvin, hydrogen nuclei are
converted into helium nuclei with the release of energy.
10.4 Understand the principal nuclear fusion process in the Sun (the proton-proton
cycle)
1 H+
1 + 11H+ → 21H+ + e+ + ve
2
1H
+ + 11H+ → 32He2+ + 
3
2He
2+ + 32He2+ → 42He2+ + 11H+ + 11H+
14.3 Understand the effects of the interaction between radiation pressure and gravity in
a main sequence star
Gravity is still pulling material inwards.
The photons () produced travel outwards, which cause radiation pressure which
balances out the inwards pressure from gravity.
Radiation pressure increases – pushing material outwards.
Eventually...
The star settles down into a stable size, releasing energy from its surface and is named
a ‘main sequence star’.
Main Sequence Stars
14.4 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages in
the life cycle of a star with a mass similar to the Sun
gravity = radiation pressure
10.2 Know the location and relative temperatures of the Sun’s internal divisions,
including:
a core
b radiative zone
c convective zone
d photosphere
1. Core
2. Radiative zone
3. Convective zone
4. Photosphere
5. Chromosphere
6. Corona
7. Sunspot
8. Granules
9. Prominence
10.2 Know the location and relative temperatures of the Sun’s internal divisions,
including:
a core
10.3 Understand the role of the Sun’s internal divisions in terms of energy production
and transfer
The core is in the centre :o
It is the hottest part of the Sun.
The core is about 20 % of the radius of the Sun.
It is about 15.7 MK in the centre
to about 7 MK at the surface.
It has a density of about 150 g cm–3 at the centre
to about 20 g cm–3 at the surface.
This is where the energy is ‘produced’.
10.2 Know the location and relative temperatures of the Sun’s internal divisions,
including:
b radiative zone
10.3 Understand the role of the Sun’s internal divisions in terms of energy production
and transfer
Between the core and convection zone.
Cooler than the core.
Extends to about 70 % of the radius of the Sun.
The temperature drops from about 7 MK to 2 MK.
The density drops from about 20 to 0.2 g cm–3.
The density is so high that the particles
effectively cannot move
Heat is transferred by movement of photons.
10.2 Know the location and relative temperatures of the Sun’s internal divisions,
including:
c convective zone
10.3 Understand the role of the Sun’s internal divisions in terms of energy production
and transfer
Between radiative zone the photosphere.
Cooler again.
Extends to just below the surface.
The temperature drops to about 5 800 K.
The density drops from about 0.2 g cm–3.
to 2 x 10–7 g cm–3 (air is about 10000 x more dense)
The density is low enough so that the particles
can move.
Heat is transferred by movement of the particles - convection.
10.2 Know the location and relative temperatures of the Sun’s internal divisions,
including:
d photosphere
10.3 Understand the role of the Sun’s internal divisions in terms of energy production
and transfer
The surface.
Cooler again.
10s to 100s of km thick.
Density goes from 2 x 10−7 g cm–3
to under 1.6 x 10−14 g cm–3
About 5 800 K.
Sunlight (and therefore heat) is free to
radiate into space.
10.5 Know the location, temperature and relative density of components of the solar
atmosphere, including:
a chromosphere
Just above the surface.
5800 K – 3800 K – 35000 K (textbook says 100000 K)
About 2000 km thick.
Density = 1 x 10–19 g cm–3
Sometimes visible as a red halo seen during total eclipses
10.5 Know the location, temperature and relative density of components of the solar
atmosphere, including:
a chromosphere
b corona
Extends to millions of km into space
2 million K
Only visible during total eclipses
Density about 108 x lower than chromosphere.
Division Location Temperature Density

Centre of core 15.7 MK 150 g cm–3

Surface of core 0.2 R 7 MK 20 g cm–3

Surface of radiative zone 0.7 R 2 MK 0.2 g cm–3

Surface of convective just below 2 x 10–7 g cm–3


zone surface
photosphere is the surface 5800 K 1.6 x 10–14 g cm–3

Surface of chromosphere 2–4000 km (3800 K)  10–4 of photosphere


thin 100,000K
Corona millions of km 2 MK 10–12 of photosphere
thick
10.10 Understand the nature, composition and origin of the solar wind
A steady stream of charged particles…
protons; electrons and some others e.g. helium ions
coming from the corona at about 400 km/s
A car on a UK motorway is allowed to travel at 0.03 km s–1
There is also a fast solar wind, which escapes from holes in the corona (close to the
poles of the Sun) where particles can escape at speeds of up to 850 km/s
14.4 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages
in the life cycle of a star with a mass similar to the Sun
Main sequence has been happening for about 4.6 billion years.
In that time about 0.03 % of the Sun’s mass has been converted into energy.
The Sun is producing He in the core, which is more dense than the H it was made
from, which makes the core smaller and therefore hotter.
This increases the brightness of the Sun by about 1 % per 100 million years.
14.4 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages
in the life cycle of a star with a mass similar to the Sun
The Sun is only a fairly small star.
In about 5.4 billion years, the core will run out of H.
i.e. main sequence will be about 90 % of the life of Sun.
Radiation pressure → 0.
The core will heat up.
This will heat up the shell (which still contains H) surrounding the core.
The H in the shell converts to He and releases heat, which expands the shell and
therefore the Sun.
The Sun will probably grow large enough to engulf the Earth.
Radiation pressure = gravity.
It will do this for about 1 billion years and convert about 30 % of its mass into energy.
14.4 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages
in the life cycle of a star with a mass similar to the Sun
After this the core is full of incredibly hot and dense He.
When it gets hot enough, about 6 % of the core will convert to C (in a few seconds to
minutes) in what is known as a helium flash.
4
2He
2+ + 42He2+ + 42He2+ → 126C6+
This flash expels the outer layers of the star...
...forming a planetary nebula (consisting about half the mass of the Sun’s mass).
This will last tens of thousands of years.
Leaving the remains of the core as a white dwarf.
Which is about 100 000 K.
Which would eventually cool to form a black dwarf.
Over a long time (trillions of years?)
14.5 Understand the balance between electron pressure and gravity in a white dwarf
star
Gravity pulls the material of a white dwarf inwards.
There is no longer any H or He to produce heat.
Radiation pressure = 0.
There is a maximum that matter can be squashed together.
Electrons cannot occupy the same quantum states.
14.9 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
similar mass to the Sun, including:
a emission and absorption nebula
b main sequence star
c planetary nebula
d red giant
e white dwarf
f black dwarf
I think c and d are the wrong way around!
Proof?
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum
Who invented the Bunsen Burner?
Robert Bunsen?
Peter Desaga, in 1855.
Bunsen used it to heat rocks which gave off coloured light.
Who invented the Bunsen Burner?
Robert Bunsen?
Peter Desaga, in 1855.
Bunsen used it to heat rocks which gave off coloured light.
In 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff...
suggested passing the light through a “spectroscope”.
In 1859, Bunsen and Kirchhoff heated rocks and the light given off was passed
through a spectroscope
Each contained elements which had its own unique “finger print” of lines of differing
colours in differing places
e.g. lithium

sodium

potassium
It wasn’t until 1913 until Niels Bohr
explained why elements gave off line spectra

energy α frequency
i.e. high frequency means high energy
red light has a low frequency, blue light is high energy
x
x
x x
x He
H x

Hydrogen Helium
2 → 1 = yellow = medium energy change
3 → 1 = blue = high energy change
2 → 1 = red = low energy change
The continuous spectrum of white light

The line spectrum of hydrogen

The line spectrum of helium


Summary
When a substance is heated, it can give off coloured light.
This light can be passed through a spectroscope.
Each element will produce a unique line spectrum.
Different elements will have lines in different places.
The lines will be different colours.
13.20 Know that most modern astronomical observations are recorded using digital
sensors that convert light into electrical signals, which can then be processed and stored
as data files
13.21 Understand how astronomers obtain and study the patterns of spectral lines in the
light from astronomical objects
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum
There are three types of spectrum:
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
a chemical composition
b temperature
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
a chemical composition
b temperature
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
a chemical composition
b temperature
Depending on which lines are present on the spectrum, we can tell which elements
are present.
The intensity of the lines also tells us about the temperature of the star as certain lines
can only be present within certain temperature ranges.
13.5 Understand how stars can be classified according to spectral type
13.6 Understand how a star’s colour and spectral type are related to its surface
temperature
13.5 Understand how stars can be classified according to spectral type
13.6 Understand how a star’s colour and spectral type are related to its surface
temperature
13.5 Understand how stars can be classified according to spectral type
13.6 Understand how a star’s colour and spectral type are related to its surface
temperature
They various types of star are most commonly classified using the Harvard system:
O, B, A, F, G, K and M
(Oh Be A Fine Guy, Kiss Me!)
Which are sub-divided F8, F9, G0, G1, G2 (The Sun)
hottest → coolest
40 000 K → 2 500 K
blue/white → yellow → red
13.7 Be able to sketch a simple Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, including labelled axes
X-axis = either:
Temperature (usually in K) hottest on left
OR
Spectral type OBAFGKM left to right
Y-axis = either:
Luminosity, increasing upwards
OR
Absolute magnitude, decreasing upwards
H-R Builder
H R video
13.7 Be able to sketch a simple Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, including labelled axes
and indicate the positions of the following:
a main sequence stars
b the Sun
c red and blue giant stars
d white dwarf stars
e supergiant stars
Main sequence stars are ‘burning hydrogen’.
Those with a high mass use the H quicker and are hotter and more luminous.
Red/blue/super giants have used all of their H and are ‘burning He’.
They are more luminous that main sequence stars, but the energy is spread out over a
much larger surface area, hence are cooler.
White dwarf stars are hot, but the energy is lost over such a small surface area that
they, in total, give out very little light.
13.7 Be able to sketch a simple Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, including labelled axes
and indicate the positions of the following:
a main sequence stars
b the Sun
c red and blue giant stars
d white dwarf stars
e supergiant stars
Stellar Evolution on an H R diagram
Jim on the Beach
But...
There is another way!
13.7 Be able to sketch a simple Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, including labelled axes
and indicate the positions of the following:
13.8 Understand how a star’s life cycle relates to its position on the Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram, for stars similar in mass to the Sun and those with masses that are
much greater
Main sequence stars are ‘burning hydrogen’.
Those with a high mass use the H quicker and are hotter and more luminous.
14.6 Understand changes to the radiation pressure-gravity balance at different stages in
the life cycle of a star with a mass much greater than the Sun
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
a emission and absorption nebula
Same as low mass stars,
...except there is more gravity, so requires more radiation pressure to balance it out, i.e.
fusion needs to occur faster
b main sequence star
Same as low mass stars
...but towards the left and top of the H-R main sequence band.
Since they are using their H faster, they have shorter main sequences than low mass
stars.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
c super red giant *note the errors on the specification*
Now, when the stars use up the H in the core, there is more gravitational collapse, so the
core gets hotter and more H in the shell, so there is more fusion, so they form hotter
(blue) or more massive (super) giant stars.
The increased mass means they can fuse C with He smoothly, so don’t have the helium
flash and don’t lose their outer layers.
The increased heat also allows fusion to occur beyond C.
12
6C + 126C → 2010Ne + 42He (5 x 108 K)
20
10Ne +  →168O + 42He (1.2 x 109 K)
16
8O + 168O → 2814Si (1.5–2.6 x 109 K)
28 + 42He → 3216S (+ 42He) → 3618Ar (+ 42He) → 4020Ca (+ 42He) → 4422Ti (+ 42He) →
14Si
48 Cr (+ 4 He) → 52 Fe (+ 4 He) → 56 Ni (2.7–3.5 x 109 K)
24 2 26 2 28

The last stage lasts for about a day.


Once you get to a nucleus with 56 nucleons (i.e. Ni) addition of further 42He no longer
releases energy
14.8 Understand the effect the Chandrasekhar Limit has on the outcome on the final
stages of the life cycle of a star
What happens next depends on the mass of the core.
Small stars (with a core less than 1.38x the mass of our Sun) form white dwarf stars.
If it is less than about 3x the mass of the Sun a super nova occurs...
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

When Ni is produced fusion stops in the core.


The core collapses and heats to about 5 x109 K, which causes a brief (minutes) stopping
of the collapse.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

When Ni is produced fusion stops in the core.


The core collapses and heats to about 5 x109 K, which causes a brief (minutes) stopping
of the collapse.
The core collapses and 5226Fe disintegrates into lots of 42He, causing further heating.
At these temperatures, p+ and e– fuse to form neutrons, with the release of neutrinos.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

When Ni is produced fusion stops in the core.


The core collapses and heats to about 5 x109 K, which causes a brief (minutes) stopping
of the collapse.
The core collapses and 5226Fe disintegrates into lots of 42He, causing further heating.
At these temperatures, p+ and e– fuse to form neutrons, with the release of neutrinos.
The neutrons are compressed until neutron degeneracy pressure prevents further
compression.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

The infalling material bounces.


14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

The infalling material bounces.


The neutrinos produced accelerate the
outwards movement of the outer layers.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*

Boom!
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
d supernova *note the errors on the specification*
e neutron star *note the errors on the specification*
The outer layers are lost in the supernova.
Only the degenerate matter at the centre remains.
This is a small (~20 km across) neutron star.
After the supernova, they can have temperatures of 1011 to 1012 K, but cool to 106 K
within a few years.
The density of the supernova remnant is extremely high (3.7–5.9 x1017 kg m–3 c.f. water
= 1000 kg m–3)
14.7 Understand the balance between neutron pressure and gravity in a neutron star
Electron degeneracy pressure prevents the compression (in a smaller star), but…
Gravity is so large that electrons combine with protons forming neutrons.
These can be squeezed together much tighter (since they are neutral).
Until they are effectively touching and therefore cannot be compressed further.
14.10 Understand the principal stages and timescales of stellar evolution for stars of
much larger mass than the Sun,
including:
f black hole *note the errors on the specification*
If the mass of the core is more than about 3x the mass of the Sun...
Even neutron degeneracy pressure cannot prevent the collapse of the star...
and a black hole forms.
Emission or absorption nebula
Gravity causes collapse
Gravitational energy converted into heat energy ∴ temperature increases
When it gets hot enough, fusion starts to occur
p + p → pn + e+ + v
pn + p → ppb + γ
ppn + ppn → ppnn + p + p
The γ carry the energy outwards and cause radiation pressure
Gravity is still bigger than R.P, so temperatures increase, speeding up fusion → ↑R.P.
When radiation pressure = gravity, temperatures stop increasing
Star is now main sequence
Convective
Zone
Photosphere

Radiative
Zone

Core
Sun-like stars (0.3 – 8 M☉)
Core begins to run out of hydrogen
Fusion slows down
Radiation pressure decreases
Gravity now larger than R.P.
Core collapses and heats up
Heating is insufficient to lead to fusion of He
But the core heats the shell surrounding the core, so that the H present there can fuse
This shell expands. A. Lot. Expanding the entire star with it.
He content of core increases as does its temperature and you get a helium flash
The outer layers surrounding the core are lost as a planetary nebula
~ 1 l.y. across and expanding
The core remains as a white dwarf
Electron pressure stops the core collapsing further (gravity = electron pressure)
Over time, it cools until it is a black dwarf
Large stars (10+ M☉)
Core begins to run out of hydrogen
Fusion slows down
Radiation pressure decreases
Gravity now larger than R.P.
Core heats up
Heating IS now sufficient to lead to fusion of He, producing C
This also provides a new source of heat energy
The shell surrounding the core heats up, fuses H and produces a super giant
Large stars (10+ M☉)
Core fuses He to C
Increasing heat allows further reactions to take place
With each reaction, less energy is released and radiation pressure decreases...
Forcing fusing to occur at faster and faster rates
Eventually, the core runs out of fuel and radiation pressure stops
A supernova occurs
The outer layers are lost as a cloud of expanding gas and dust (~ 10 l.y. across)
A supernova remnant is left behind

Fe → Ni !

Si → Fe
Some others
O → Si
Ne → O
C → Ne
He → C
Large stars (10+ M☉)
What becomes of the core depends on the mass of the star
If the core is smaller than the Chandrasekhar Limit ~ 1.38x M☉ then a white dwarf forms
If the core is smaller than about 3 M☉ then a neutron star remains
Gravity = neutron pressure
If the core is bigger than about 3 M☉ then a black hole forms
14.11 Understand how astronomers study and gather evidence for the existence of black
holes
1. Gravitational lensing.
14.11 Understand how astronomers study and gather evidence for the existence of black
holes
2. Rotational speed of Galaxies.
We will cover this properly when we study planetary systems.
Stars orbiting black holes
3. Effect on stars that get too close.
The outer layers of the star get pulled in towards the black hole and forms an accretion
disk around the black hole.
The material accelerates and heats up.
It gets so hot that X-rays are given off.
What happens when stars get close to black holes
15.2 Know the size and shape of our Galaxy and the location of the Sun, dust, sites of
star formation and globular clusters
Size ≈ 15 kpc radius.
Shape = spiral.
Location of Sun ≈ 10 kpc from centre.
Dust + star formation is found in the spiral arms.
Globular clusters are in a halo. These contain relatively old stars.
6.21 Understand the appearance of the Milky Way from Earth as seen with the naked
eye
15.1 Understand the appearance of the Milky Way from Earth as seen with binoculars or
a small telescope
Galileo, using a telescope, was the first person to explain the Milky Way.
All of the stars in the night skySmall
are inMegellanic
our galaxy.Cloud
Seen from our point of view...
Most of the stars can be found in a fairly narrow, faint patchy band of faint light stretching
across the sky.
“Faint/fuzzy/indistinct”
“Band/arch of light stretching across the sky”
Large
With a telescope, individual Megellanic
stars Cloud
can be seen.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
a spiral
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Spiral
Flattened.
Disk shaped.
These are further sub-divided by assigning letters a, b or c, depending on the strength of
the nuclear bulge and the ‘openness’ of the spiral arms.
Sa have prominent nuclei and tightly wound arms.
Sc have relatively small nuclei and open arms.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
b barred spiral
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Barred spiral
Similar to spiral galaxies.
But, with a bright bar running through the nucleus from which the spiral arms emerge
Again have sub-catagories SBa – SBc.
SBa have tightly wound spiral arms.
SBc have loosely bound arms.
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
c elliptical
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Elliptical
Relatively smooth spheroidal distribution of stars showing a gradual decrease in
brightness from the centre outwards
Elliptical galaxies are assigned numbers 0-7 depending on their shape
E0 are almost circular
E7 are highly elongated
15.6 Be able to classify galaxies using the Hubble classification system, including:
d irregular
Edwin Hubble in the 1920’s suggested that all galaxies be classified into four types:
Irregular
Very little structure or symmetry.
15.7 Know how the different types of galaxies were placed by Hubble on his ‘Tuning
Fork’ diagram
These four galaxy types are often shown together on a “Tuning Fork Diagram” (named
because of its shape):
Irregular galaxies don’t appear on the tuning fork.
Modern tuning forks have S0 in the middle.
Lenticular (S0)
These are recent additions to the list of galaxy types, but are in between elliptical and
spiral galaxies.
Lenticular galaxies are disk galaxies (like spiral galaxies) which have used up or lost
most of their interstellar matter and therefore have very little ongoing star formation.
Old Specification:
Unit 4.2
c recall that the Milky Way is an Sb type galaxy
15.8 Know that the Milky Way is a barred spiral (SBb) type galaxy
15.4 Know that the group of galaxies gravitationally linked to the Milky Way is called the
Local Group
The Local Group is the group of galaxies
close to the Milky Way.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group...
About 50 galaxies (including dwarf galaxies) held together by mutual gravitational
attraction.
About 3 Mpc across.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
a Andromeda Galaxy (M31)
Where do you think it lies on Hubble’s Tuning Fork?
It is an Sb galaxy.
The largest galaxy in the local group, having about one trillion stars, at least twice as
many as the Milky Way.
It is moving towards us.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
b Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC)
The Large Magellanic Cloud
An irregular galaxy.
A satellite of the Milky way.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
b Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC)
The Small Magellanic Cloud
A (dwarf) irregular galaxy.
15.5 Know the composition and scale of the Local Group, including its principal
components:
c Triangulum Galaxy (M33)
It is an Sc galaxy.
The third largest galaxy in the local group.
15.13 Understand why galaxies are grouped in larger clusters and superclusters
Gravity.
A more complex answer will come after CMB.
Larger clusters = local group and other nearby groups (about 10 MPc across = 5)
Superclusters = groups of clusters
We are part of the Virgo supercluster (our Local Supercluster)
This consists of at least 100 galaxy groups and clusters
The Local Supercluster is one of millions of superclusters in the observable universe
15.14 Understand the main theories for the formation and evolution of galaxies
Nebulae collapse forming stars.
Stars attract each other, gravitationally forming galaxies.
Typically orbiting around a supermassive black hole at the centre.
‘Young’ galaxies are typically spiral.
Spiral galaxies are thought to merge to form elliptical galaxies.
Galaxy formation
15.9 Know that some galaxies emit large quantities of radiation in addition to visible light
15.10 Know that an Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) is powered by matter falling onto a
super-massive black hole
The supermassive black hole is MUCH bigger than the type formed after supernovae.
106 – 109 times bigger!
These form accretion disks.
Which form jets of electrons and protons in beams from the poles of the disk.
These then give out electromagnetic radiation.
LOTS of it.
They are the most luminous objects in the known universe.
In many frequencies, esp. radio and X-ray.
15.11 Know types of active galaxies, including:
a Seyfert galaxies
AGNs fall into two classes:
Radio-quiet AGNs
The main type is Seyfert galaxies:
Usually spiral (or irregular) galaxies with extremely compact but bright nuclei.
Strong and often variable emission of radiation at IR, UV and X-ray frequencies.
15.11 Know types of active galaxies, including:
b quasars
c blazars
AGNs fall into two classes:
Radio Loud AGNs
Typically elliptical and produce more than a million times more radio waves than normal
galaxies. The radio emissions come from symmetrical ‘lobes’
Quasars
Quazsi-stellar radio sources. Emit in all frequencies, esp. UV, X-ray and radio.
Much more later.
Look like VERY luminous stars (rather than extended galaxies)
and Blazars:
BL Lacerta or BL Lac objects. Much closer than quasars, emit in all frequencies but can
vary dramatically in their brightness every day or two.
Their jets are pointing towards us.
13.9 Understand the inverse square relationship between distance and
brightness/intensity
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 1 cm?
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 2 cm?
What is the surface area of the inside of a ping pong ball of radius 3 cm?
The further away a star is, the dimmer it will appear to be.
Light intensity α 1 / d2
13.1 Understand the astronomical magnitude scale and how apparent magnitude relates
to the brightness of stars as viewed from Earth
The apparent magnitude of a star is related to its brightness.
The brightest stars in the sky are first order magnitude (m = 1)
The dimmest (that can be seen with the naked eye) are sixth magnitude (m = 6)
Ptolemy suggested that stars with m = 1 were twice as bright as m = 2 stars...
Which were twice as bright as m = 3 start etc.
In 1856 it was decided that m = 1 stars were 100 x brighter than m = 6 stars
Therefore m = 1 stars are 5100 x i.e. ~2.5 x brighter than m = 2 stars
Polaris was set as m = 2, but later found to be variable, so it switched to Vega as m = 0
13.1 Understand the astronomical magnitude scale and how apparent magnitude relates
to the brightness of stars as viewed from Earth
Its value will depend on four main factors:
•The total energy radiated by the star (dependent on the star’s size and temperature).
•The distance from the star to us.
•The amount of interstellar dust and gas.
•The amount of light absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere.
13.10 Understand that an angle of one degree (°) comprises 60 minutes of arc (arcmin)
(60’) and that each arcminute is comprised of 60 seconds of arc (arcsec) (60”)
*note the error on the specification*
13.12 Be able to determine astronomical distances using heliocentric parallax
N.B. p is half the overall angle
If p = 1” (arcsec), then d = 1 pc (parsec)
13.11 Understand the term parsec (pc)
A parsec is the distance from the Sun to an astronomical object which has a
parallax angle of one arcsecond
d=1/p
d = distance in parsec
p = half the angular shift in arcsec
13.3 Be able to use the distance modulus formula to determine the absolute (M) or
apparent magnitude (m) of a star, given the distance to the star (d):
M = m + 5 – 5 log d
where d is the distance in parsec
13.2 Understand the term absolute magnitude
The absolute magnitude (M) is defined as the apparent magnitude the star would have
from a standard distance of 10 pc.
13.13 Understand how to use a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram to determine distances to
stars
Using the spectrum of a star, the spectral class (temperature) of a star can be
determined.
The value of M can be read off from the H–R diagram.
m can be determined visually.
M and m can be used to determine d using the distance modulus formula.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
a short/long period
Some stars change their luminosity in a regular way.
Some do this over a short period of time:
Others over a long period of time.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
Cepheid
Gravity pulls He+ in
This heats the He+ is (it is close to the start)...
When hot enough, it starts to ionise He+ → He2+
This makes the atmosphere slowly opaque.
Trapping heat inside.
Which slowly makes it hotter, with more ionisation.
This further heats the star, which expands.
Which cools the star.
Eventually: He2+ → He+
And the atmosphere quickly becomes transparent.
This allows heat to leave.
And the star cools and contracts.
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
Cepheid
Dim star.
Quickly becomes luminous.
Gradually becomes less luminous.
Repeat.
13.16 Understand how Cepheid variables can be used to determine distances
There is a strong correlation between luminosity and pulsation period
Hot stars have a long period.
and if we know its mean absolute luminosity (M), we can use:
M = m + 5 – 5 log d
and work out its distance
•Determine the time period (of the Cepheid variable)
•Use period-luminosity law to determine (mean) M
•Use distance-modulus formula and observed (mean) m to calculate d
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies of roughly equal mass, e.g. 90 Antiope
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with a difference in mass, e.g. Pluto and Charon
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with a major difference in mass, e.g. Earth and Moon
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with an extreme difference in mass, e.g. Sun and Earth
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass.
Barycentrics:
Two bodies with similar mass and elliptical orbits
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
b eclipsing binary
13.17 Understand the structure of gravitationally bound stellar groupings such as binary
stars and clusters
Clusters:
We will meet globular and open clusters later...
But they are both around 30 light years across and contain stars that are gravitationally
influencing each other.
13.15 Understand the causes of variability in the light curve of eclipsing binary stars
13.18 Understand how the period of an eclipsing binary star can be deduced from its
light curve
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
d novae and supernovae
Nova:
Typically when a white dwarf gets too close to a another (main sequence or red giant)
and accretes matter forming an atmosphere of hydrogen.
This hydrogen is heated enough to cause a sudden fusion event, releasing a huge
amount of energy and blowing the atmosphere away.
Luminosity increases rapidly, with a slow decrease over <25 to >80 days
13.14 Understand the light curves of the following variable stars:
d novae and supernovae
Supernova:
Similar to novae: rapid increase and slow decrease (but both over longer times)
But, there are lots of different types of supernovae:
Average peak
Approximate Days to peak Days from peak to
Type absolute
energy (foe) luminosity 10% luminosity
magnatude
Ia −19 1 approx. 19 around 60
Ib/c (faint) around −15 0.1 15–25 unknown
Ib around −17 1 15–25 40–100
Ic around −16 1 15–25 40–100
Ic (bright) to −22 above 5 roughly 25 roughly 100
II-b around −17 1 around 20 around 100
II-L around −17 1 around 13 around 150
II-P (faint) around −14 0.1 roughly 15 unknown
Plateau then
II-P around −16 1 around 15
around 50
IIn around −17 1 12–30 or more 50–150
IIn (bright) to −22 above 5 above 50 above 100
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
c radial velocity
How quickly something is moving towards or away from us on Earth.
13.4 Understand what information can be obtained from a stellar spectrum, including
c radial velocity
The Doppler Effect: the apparent change in frequency of light (and other waves) due
to the relative movement of the source and observer.
This is fine, but what frequency was the light emitted by a star?
If we look at the spectrum of a star:
The spectrum will have absorption lines on it.
These lines correspond to the energy required to make e–
jump between shells.
If we measure these spectral lines in a laboratory, the lines
are in different places:
The wavelength of the star’s lines are higher:
This increase in wavelength can be measured and the
radial velocity required to produce this increase can be
calculated...
16.3 Be able to use the formula:
λ – λ0 / λ0 = v / c
where λ is the observed wavelength, λ0 is the emitted wavelength, v is the radial
velocity of the source, c is the speed of light
The thing you are likely to get confused is: which λ is which.
Remember than the 0 in λ0 means the speed at which the wavelength is measured, i.e.
in the laboratory.
15.3 Understand how 21 cm radio waves, rather than visible light, are used to
determine the structure and rotation of our Galaxy
‘Visible’ light cannot penetrate the gas and dust that our galaxy is mostly made up of.
1420 MHz microwaves (21 cm) can penetrate the dust (and the Earth’s atmosphere)
but is absorbed and emitted by hydrogen (the gas).
This frequency of light is red and blue shifted by the galaxy rotating...
so we can see what the Milky Way is made of and how fast it is rotating.
16.1 Know that observations of galaxies outside the Local Group show that light is
shifted to longer wavelengths (redshift)
Andromeda is moving towards us, so the spectral light is of shorter wavelength
i.e. blueshifted.
Galaxies that are further away are ALL redshifted.
Hubble data
16.2 Understand that redshift is caused by galaxies receding from us
16.5 Be able to use the relationship between distance and redshift of distant galaxies
(Hubble’s law) including the formula:
v = H0 d
where v is the radial velocity of the recession of the galaxy, H0 is the Hubble constant
and d is the distance of the galaxy from Earth.
H can be estimated from the gradient of the line
H = Hubble’s constant ≈ 67.80 kms–1 / Mpc ± 0.77
16.6 Understand the estimation of the age and size of the Universe using the value of
the Hubble constant
To calculate the age of the Universe:
Convert H into SI units
Then invert

H = Hubble’s constant  67.80 kms–1 Mpc–1

The value is divided by the number of km in 1 pc i.e. 3.1 x 1013


This converts the units of H to kms–1 km–1 i.e. s–1
Taking the reciprocal give the ages of the universe in seconds
Dividing by the number of seconds in one year give the age of the universe in years

67.80 / 3.09 x 1019 = 2.19 x 10–18 s-1

1 / 2.19 x 10–18 = 4.56 x 1017 s

1 year = 3.2 x 107 seconds

4.55 x 1017 / 3.2 x 107 = 14.4 x 109 = 14.4 billion years old
Current accepted answer = 13.798 ×109 ± 0.037 years old
16.6 Understand the estimation of the age and size of the Universe using the value of
the Hubble constant
To calculate the size of the Universe:
Assume that the universe is expanding at the speed of light.
Multiply the age by the speed.

14.4 x 109 s x 300000 kms–1 = 4.33 x 1015 km


16.4 Understand the evidence to confirm the discovery of the expanding universe
16.8 Understand the major observational evidence in favour of the Big Bang theory:
a quasars (QSOs)
Quasars are only found with very high redshifts.
Which means they are found at great distances.
Which means the light from them has been travelling from them for a long time.
Which means they are very old.
You don’t get near/new quasars...
i.e. the universe has not always been the same.
Take that, Static Universe Theory.
16.8 Understand the major observational evidence in favour of the Big Bang theory:
c Hubble Deep Field image
A patch of sky was chosen that was ‘empty’ and the Hubble Telescope was pointed at it
Taking 342 images over ten days
They found many very distant, hence very old galaxies
...implying that the early Universe was very different from how it appears today.
Take that, Static Universe Theory.
16.8 Understand the major observational evidence in favour of the Big Bang theory:
b cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
When the universe was young, before the formation of stars and planets, it was smaller,
much hotter, and filled with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of hydrogen plasma.
As the universe expanded, both the plasma and the radiation filling it grew cooler.
When the universe cooled enough, protons and electrons could form neutral atoms.
These atoms could no longer absorb the thermal radiation, and the universe became
transparent instead of being an opaque fog.
The photons that existed at that time have been propagating ever since.
The light that has been travelling since then (approx 380,000 years after the Big Bang,
when the universe was approx 3000 K) has been stretched by the expansion of the
universe until its wavelength is that of microwave radiation.
This light seems to come from everywhere, since the entire universe was pretty
uniformly hot.
The theory predicts that CMB should be 2.7 K, which perfectly matches observation.
16.8 Understand the major observational evidence in favour of the Big Bang theory:
b cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
The cosmic microwave background was predicted in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph
Alpher, and Robert Herman. Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature
of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K (based on the value of the Hubble
constant at that time).
BUT, their work was forgotten and re-predicted a couple of times, one time (in the
1960’s) by a chap called Robert Dicke at Princeton University – colleagues of whom built
an antenna to look for CMB.
Meanwhile, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were tuning a small, yet very powerful and
highly sensitive horn antenna for conducting radio astronomy experiments.
They noted a constant low level ‘noise’ disrupting their reception. Despite their efforts,
they could not find any evidence of malfunction in their equipment. Also, the static
persisted regardless of the direction the antenna was pointing.
They told Dicke of their findings, who confirmed what they had found and Penzias and
Wilson were given the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1978.
16.8 Understand the major observational evidence in favour of the Big Bang theory:
b cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
IF:
...the early Universe was very hot and then expanded, there should be microwave
radiation corresponding to a temperature of 2.7 K coming from all directions, at all times.
Since this radiation can be detected...
Take that, Steady State Theory.
16.9 Understand the significance of the fluctuations in the CMB radiation for theories of
the evolution of the Universe, including discoveries by the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) and the Planck mission
1960: Penzias and Wilson
1990: COBE 1989 – 1993
2001: WMAP 2001 – 2010
2009: Planck 2009 – 2013
16.9 Understand the significance of the fluctuations in the CMB radiation for theories of
the evolution of the Universe, including discoveries by the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) and the Planck mission
These small differences in temperature (about 1 part in 100,000) represent difference in
density of the universe at 380,000 years old.
If the matter in the Universe was evenly spread out, nebulae would never form (and
hence stars etc.)
These differences in density lead to stars, galaxies etc.
16.10 Understand the significance and possible nature of dark matter
16.11 Understand the difficulties involved in the detection of dark matter
What is dark matter?
Matter that is invisible, i.e. doesn’t emit or reflect light, but has detectible gravitational
effects
Its nature is unknown...
but could include: black holes and/or WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles)
It is thought that approx. 90% of all matter in the universe is dark matter
i.e. about 25% of the mass-energy in the universe is dark matter
Significance:
Rotational speed of galaxies (around central supermassive black holes)
Gravitational lensing
Fate of the universe
16.10 Understand the significance and possible nature of dark matter and dark energy
16.11 Understand the difficulties involved in the detection of dark matter and dark energy
What is dark energy?
No one knows.
It is thought that approx. 70% of all energy in the universe is dark energy
+25% dark matter
therefore about +5% normal matter
Significance:
Causes acceleration that overcomes gravity
Difficulty:
The force is very weak and is only detected at vast distances (quasars)
16.12 Understand that current models of the Universe predict different future
evolutionary paths
The 70:25:5 ratio isn’t exact.
Small differences in the numbers lead to different outcomes.
Four main theories:
Gravity dominates: ‘big crunch’. Expansion stops and gravity pulls the stuff back into
singularity
Gravity matches dark energy and the universe stops expanding
‘Big rip’:
Gravity matches dark energy and expansion continues at constant rate
OR
Dark energy dominates and acceleration increases
Spectra Recap
How created:
Collect light from star with a telescope.
Pass light into s spectroscope – a prism / diffraction grating.
Different frequency / wavelength of light is diffracted by different angles.
Spectra Recap
What you will see:
Stars give out a continuous spectrum (all frequencies produced).
The atmosphere surrounding the star contains various elements.
If the energy carried by a photon (from the star) matches the energy needed to raise an
e– in that element to a higher shell, then it will be absorbed.*
That frequency of light will be missing from the spectrum seen on Earth.
*when the e– drops back to the lower level, it releases a photon, but this will be in a
different direction from the original photon and therefore will not be seen.
Spectra Recap
What information does it give:
Composition
Each element has a unique fingerprint.
If those lines are present on the spectrum, then those elements are present in the
atmosphere of that star.
This is linked to age (older and second generation stars will have higher amounts of
heavier elements in their atmospheres)
Spectra Recap
What information does it give:
Spectral type
The relative thickness/darkness of the spectral lines corresponds to spectral type…
OBAFGKM.
Spectra Recap
What information does it give:
Temperature
Hot stars ionise certain elements (the e– is completely removed), so cannot fall back and
release the photon.
Cold stars do not raise their e– to the right shell to allow it to drop back down.
Different elements require different amounts of energy to ionise/raise e–, so…
Spectral type is linked to temperature.
As are size, luminosity and absolute magnitude (M).
Spectra Recap
Doppler shifting
The change in frequency / wavelength of observed light caused by the relative motion
(towards or away) of the source and observer.
Spectra Recap
What we can do with the spectra:
Calculate radial velocity (λ – λ0 / λ0 = v / c) then…
use Hubble’s Law (v = H0 d) to calculate distance to star.
With the spectral type, use H-R diagram to find M then…
find m (by measurement) then…
use distance–modulus formula (M = m + 5 – 5 log d) to calculate distance to star.

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