Eat 131/4

Environmental Chemistry
Dr. Naimah/Dr. SA ONG

Basic Concepts from

General Chemistry
Elements, Symbols, Atomic
weights
 Atoms
• The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of
a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud
of negatively charged electrons.
• The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively
charged protons and electrically neutral
neutrons
• An atom containing an equal number of protons
and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it
has a positive or negative charge and is an ion.
• An atom is classified according to the number
of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. *
An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the
electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4
is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron
cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case..
• A chemical element is distinguished by its
atomic number, which is the number of protons
in its nucleus. Common examples of elements
are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.
• Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the
same number of protons (the same atomic
number) but different numbers of neutrons.
Therefore, isotopes of the same element have
different mass numbers*.
• For example, the carbon-12 isotope has 6
protons and 6 neutrons, while the carbon-14
isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.
 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that
have the same proton number, but different
nucleon number.

Isotopes of hydrogen:
1 2 3
1 H 1 H 1 H
hydrogen deuterium tritium
• Atomic mass may be considered to be the
total mass of protons, neutrons and
electrons in a single atom *
• The atomic mass (ma) is the mass of
specific isotope of a given atom, most
often expressed in unified atomic mass
units
• The atomic mass is defined as the mass
of an atom, which can only be one isotope
at a time and is not an abundance-
weighted average.
Nucleon Number
- also known as mass number
Nucleon number = number of protons
+ neutrons in the nucleus

Nucleon number
a Symbol of the
b X element
Proton number

12
Example:
6
C
Elements have their own symbols*
 Element Symbols

• writing element symbols

– first 1-2 distinguishing letters in name used for
symbol *
– only the first letter is uppercase!
– memorize symbols derived from ancient
names as following:
11 element symbols derived from ancient
names (Latin/ Greek/ German)
English name Symbol Ancient Name
antimony Sb stibium
copper Cu cuprum
gold Au aurum
iron Fe ferrum
lead Pb plumbum
mercury Hg hydrargyrum
potassium K kalium
silver Ag argentum
sodium Na natrium
tin Sn stannum
tungsten W wolfram
Relative Atomic Mass
Atoms are too small to be weighted directly. However, we
can determine the relative atomic mass of an element.

In the year 1961, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure

and Applied Chemistry) agreed to use a scale based on
the isotope carbon-12 (126C )

On this scale, carbon-12 atoms are assigned a mass of

exactly 12 atomic mass units (a.m.u). The relative
atomic masses of all elements can now be found by
comparing the mass of one atoms of the element with
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
The concept of the atomic mass unit
The relative mass of an atom is stated in terms of atomic
mass units (a.m.u). One atomic mass unit is defined as 1
12
the mass of one atom of the C-12 isotope. The mass of
one C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g.

Therefore, 1 a.m.u = 1 x 1.992 x 10-23 g

12

= 1.660 x 10-24 g
= 1.66 x 10-27 kg
 The relative atomic mass of an element
The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as
the ratio of the average mass of one atom of the
element to 1 of the mass of a C-12 atom, that is,
12

Average mass of one atom of the element

Relative atomic mass =
1 of the mass of an atom of C-12
of an element
12
Average mass of one atom of the element x 12
=
Mass of an atom of C-12

The symbol for relative atomic mass is Ar.

 Atomic weights*

• Atomic weights of the elements refer to the

relative weights of the atoms as compared with
standard (12C isotope was adopted as the atomic
std with a value exactly 12)
• The average mass of an atom of an element.*
• The atomic weight given on the periodic table is a
weighted average of isotopic masses.
• Gram atomic weight of an element refers to the
quantity of element in grams corresponding to the
atomic weight*.
Compound, Formulas, Formula
weights, Equivalent weights
 Compounds
• A compound is a substance formed when two
or more elements are chemically joined.
• Water and salt are examples of compounds.
• When the elements are joined, the atoms lose
their individual properties and have different
properties from the elements they are
composed of.
• E.g. physical properties such as boiling and
melting point or electric and thermal
conductivity.
• Chemical compounds consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that
are held together in a defined arrangement by chemical
bonds. Chemical compounds can be compound molecules
*held together by covalent bonds, salts *held together by
ionic bonds, or complexes held together by coordinate
covalent bonds.*

• Elements form compounds to become more stable. They

become stable when they have the maximum number of
possible electrons in their outermost energy level, which is
normally two or eight valence electrons.
 Compounds and mixtures
• The physical and chemical properties of compounds
are different from those of their constituent elements.
This is one of the main criteria for distinguishing a
compound from a mixture of elements. *

• Another criterion for distinguishing a compound from a

mixture is that the constituents of a mixture can
usually be separated by simple, mechanical means
such as filtering, evaporation, or use of a magnetic
force, but the components of a compound can only be
separated by a chemical reaction*. Conversely,
mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone,
but a compound can only be created by a chemical
reaction.
 Formulas

• A chemical formula is used as a quick way

to show the composition of compounds.
• Letters, numbers, and symbols are used
to represent elements and the number of
elements in each compound.
 Gram molecular
weights/Formula Weight
• MW or formula weight refers to the
molecular weight in grams of any particular
compound.
• Also referred to as a mole.
• Example:
FW of 1 mole CaCO3 =
40 + 12 + 3(16) = 100 g*
Concentrations
of Solutions
The concentration of solution can be expressed
in several different quantitative ways:
Molarity
Molality
Mole fraction
Percent (%) by mass
Percent (%) by volume
Parts per million (ppm)
Molarity
MOLAR:
A molar solution consists of 1 formula weight (or MW) dissolved in
enough water to make 1 liter of solution*.

Amount of solute (mol)

Concentration (mol dm-3) =
Volume of solution (dm3)

Concentration (g dm-3) = Concentration x Relative molecular

(mol dm-3) or formula mass

Volume (cm3)
Amount of solute (mol) = Concentration (mol dm-3) x
1000
 Molality

MOLAL:
1 MW dissolved in 1 kg of water. The volume will be slightly in
excess of 1 molar solution*.

Moles of solute (mol)

Molality =
Mass of solvent (kg)
Mole fraction
A solution contains n moles of A and m moles of B.
n
Mole fraction of A =
n+m
Mole fractions have no units. In a solution contains n1
mole, n2 mol, n3 mol, etc. of components A, B, C, etc.,
the sum of the mole fractions of the component is 1.0
 Percent by mass
Also called weight percent (% w/w).

Mass of component
Percent by mass (% w/w) = X 100 %
Total mass of solution

A 0.9 % sodium chloride -

solution is a solution in which the ratio of the solute (NaCl)
to solution [NaCl (aq)] is 0.9 g of NaCl to 100 g of NaCl
solution.
 Percent by volume
Volume of component
Percent by volume (% v/v) = X 100 %
Total volume of solution

Example:
40% alcohol by volume –
refers to a mixture of 40 volume units of ethanol with
enough water to make a final volume of 100 units,
rather than a mixture of 40 units of ethanol with 60
units of water.
 Parts per million
For extremely dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is used.

Mass of solute (mg)

Concentration =
Mass of solution (kg)

Mass of solute (g)

ppm = X 106
Mass of solution (g)

For example, dissolved 200 mg NaCl in 1 kg solution, ppm?

 Equivalent weights
Equivalent weight (also known as gram equivalent),
it is the mass of one equivalent, that is the mass of a
given substance which will:

- supply or react with one mole of hydrogen ions (H+) in an

acid–base reaction; or
- supply or react with one mole of electrons in a redox reaction.

The equivalent weight of a compound can be

calculated by dividing the molecular weight by the
number of positive or negative electrical charges that
result from the dissolution of the compound
 Equivalent weights

Equivalent weight = MW
Z
MW = molecular weight/ formula weight of
a compound
Z = ion charge; number of H+ or OH- ions a
species can react with or yield in an
acid- base reaction; change of valence in
a reduction and oxidation reaction
The Mole Concept & Avogadro’s
Number
1 mol of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023
particles.

• A mole contains the same number of

molecules, whatever the substance.
• The number is Avogadro’s number,
approximately 6.02 x 1023
• Can be expressed as atoms per mole, molecules
per mole, ions per mole or particles per mole
• depending on context:
• 1 mole of……
• 6.02 x 1023 S atoms = 32.06 g S
• 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules = 18.0 g H2O
• 6.02 x 1023 OH- ions = 17.0 g OH-
Calculating the number of atoms and molecules
1 mol of carbon (C) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms. Thus,

6.02 x 1023
1.0 g of C contains atoms and
12

8.0 g of C contains 8 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms and

12
 Number of atoms or molecules
Amount of substance (moles) =
Avogadro Number

Examples:
(a) How many atoms are found in 0.6 mole of copper?
(b) How many moles of chlorine molecules are found in
5 x 1022 molecules of chlorine gas?
Valency & bonding, Oxidation
States and redox reaction
 Valency and Bonding
• Most atoms consist of neutrons, protons (+) and
electrons (-)
• Neutrons and protons are contained within
nucleus
• Electrons (= number of protons or atomic
number) are arranged in orderly shells outside.
• Valence electrons are the outermost electrons
of an atom
• If electrons are lost, atom becomes +vely
charged
• If electrons are gained, atom becomes –vely
charged
• In the formation of ions, atoms of 2 elements
undergo reduction and oxidation; 1 gains
electrons and the other loses electrons.*
• Metal element loses electron to gain a stable
condition with no electrons in its outer shell.
• The nonmetal steals electrons from the metal to
complete its outer shell to 8 electrons, a stable
configuration
• E.g. chemical reaction between sodium and
chlorine
• Electron transfer during a chemical reaction, producing a
sodium ion with an oxidation state of +1 and a chloride ion
with an oxidation state of –1.
• Oxidation state: A measure of the degree of
oxidation of an atom in a substance. It is
defined as the charge an atom might be
imagined to have when electrons are counted
according to an agreed-upon set of rules:
• (1) the oxidation state of a free element
(uncombined element) is zero;
• (2) for a simple (monoatomic) ion, the oxidation
state is equal to the net charge on the ion;
• (3) hydrogen has an oxidation state of 1 and
oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 when they
are present in most compounds.
• (4) the algebraic sum of oxidation states of
all atoms in a neutral molecule must be
zero, while in ions the algebraic sum of the
oxidation states of the constituent atoms
must be equal to the charge on the ion.
 Oxidation number are also called oxidation states.

The oxidation number of an element in its uncombined

state is zero.
Example: Oxidation number of Cl2, O2 and Na is zero.

Element Oxidation number

Group 1 elements in the Periodic
+1
Table
Group 2 elements in the Periodic
Table +2
Al +3
Cl -1
O -2
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in
a compound is zero.

For example, in FeCl3, the sum of the oxidation numbers

of Fe and Cl = + 3 + 3 (-1) = 0.

The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a

polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion.

For example, in SO42-, the sum of the oxidation numbers

= + 6 + 4 (-2) = -2 (the charge on the sulphate ion).
 Lewis structure

• Multiple
oxidation states
of chlorine due
to sharing of
electrons.
• Most elements have more than one possible oxidation state — with carbon
having nine, as follows below:
• –4: CH4
• –3: C2H6
• –2: CH3Cl
• –1: C2H2
• 0: CH2Cl2
• +1: C2H2Cl4
• +2: CHCl3
• +3: C2Cl6
• +4: CCl4

• Oxygen has 8 different oxidation states:

• -2 in oxides, e.g. ZnO, CO2, H2O
• -1 in peroxides, e.g. H2O2
• -1/2 in superoxides, e.g. KO2
• -1/3 in inorganic ozonides, e.g.
• 0 in O2
• +1/2 in dioxygenyl, e.g. dioxygenyl hexafluoroarsenate O2+ [AsF6]-
• +1 in O2F2
• +2 in OF2
• The valency/ oxidation number of an atom is
determined by the number of electrons that it can
take on, give up, or share with other atoms.
• Valency is governed by the number of electrons
in the outermost electronic shell of the atoms of
that element (i.e. the valence electrons).
• These valence electrons are given up to other
atoms or are received from other atoms to make
Ionic Bonds, or the valence electrons are shared
with other atoms to make Covalent Bonds.
E.g. Water molecule

• The Oxygen is two electrons short of a full outer shell.

The Hydrogen atoms need to gain an extra electron to
complete their outer shell which can hold two electrons.
• Transferring electrons would require too much energy in
this case. What happens is that the electrons are shared.
• The Oxygen shares one of its
electrons with the first
Hydrogen atom and another
with the second Hydrogen
atom.
• The Oxygen atom then has
eight electrons orbiting it:
equivalent to a full outer shell.
• Each Hydrogen atom shares
an electron with the Oxygen
atom, thereby having two.
• Molecules are discrete
entities which have strong
bonds between the atoms.
This type of bond is called a
Covalent Bond.
 Chemical equations: weight
relationship and conservation of
mass and charge
• Chemical equation
– Mass must be conserved (total number of each
kind of atom must be the same for both sides
of equation)
– Sum of charge on 1 side is equal to another
– All formulas used must be correct

H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) → H2O (g)

Reactants Products
 Oxidation-reduction
equations
• An atom, molecule or ion is said to undergo
oxidation when it loses an electron and to
undergo reduction when it gains an electron
• If electrons are equally shared by homonuclear
atoms; no atom gains or loses electrons in the
formation of molecule from its atom; the oxidation
states = 0 (e.g. O2)
• Heteronuclear polar covalent molecule has
electrons which are shared unequally by atoms
in the molecule (e.g. H2O) (see at
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/5-
bonds.htm).
 Oxidizing & Reducing Agent

• Oxidizing agent*: Substances that cause some other

species to be oxidized or to lose electrons. In order to
cause the loss of electrons on some other species, the
oxidizing agent must undergo reduction.
• E.g. O(0), Cl(0), Fe(III), Cr(VI), Mn(IV), Mn(VII), N(V),
N(III), S(0), S(IV), S(VI)
• Reducing agent*: Substances that cause other species to
be reduced or gain electrons. In order for reducing agents
to cause the gaining of electrons on some other species
they must undergo oxidation.
• E.g. H(0), Fe(0), Mg(0), Fe(II), Cr(II), Mn(IV), N(III), Cl(-I),
S(0), S(-II), S(IV)
• Simple Oxidation –Reduction Reactions
H20 + Cl20 → 2H+Cl-
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
2Fe2+ + Cl20 → 2Fe3+ + 2Cl-

In each eq, the oxidizing agent gains the same

number of e as are lost by the reducing agent
Complex Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- many oxidation-reduction reaction need acid
or water
- How to balance the eq of oxidation-reduction:
i) Write the skeleton eq. – molecular or ionic
forms
ii) Balance the eq with respect to the oxidation
number change; balance the gain and lose of
e
iii) Complete the eq in the usual manner
Half Reaction
- Half reactions are balanced oxidation-reduction reactions
for a single element
- They are not complete reactions because electrons are
shown as of the reactants
- A complete reaction is made by adding one half reaction to
the reverse of another
- Example:
ClO3- (aq) + 2I- (aq) → Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)
 Redox reaction in alkaline solution

CrO42–(aq) + AsH3(g) Cr(OH)3(s) + As(s)