Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
 1. What & How?

Heat Transfer is thermal energy in transit due to

a temperature difference.

Temperature
Heat Transfer
difference
 1. What & How?

Conduction Convection Radiation

T1 > T2 Ts > T
T1
T1 T2 Moving fluid, T
q1”
T2
q” q” q2”

Ts
Net radiation
Convection from a heat exchange
Conduction through between two
surface to a moving
a solid or a surfaces.
fluid
stationary fluid
Application Areas of HT
 2. Conduction

• For heat conduction, the rate equation is

T known as Fourier’s Law.
• For one-dimensional plane having a
temperature distribution T(x), the rate
T1
T(x) equation is expressed as
dT
qx  k
"

dx
qx” T2
• Heat flux qx” is the HT rate in the x
L x
direction per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of transfer [W/m2]
dT temperature • k = thermal conductivity [W/m.K]
= gradient in x
dx • “- ” = consequence of the fact that heat is
direction.
transferred in the direction of decreasing T.
 2. Conduction
• Under the steady-state conditions and linear temperature
distribution, the temperature gradient is: dT T2  T1

dx L

T2  T1 T
• And the heat flux is q  k
"
x k
L L
• Then, the heat rate by conduction through a plane wall of area A
is qx = qx“ A.
o

• Thermal Conductivity.
2. Conduction
 2. Conduction
Example 1.1:
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from
0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K. Measurements made
during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of
1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a
wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side? [1700 Watt]
 3. Convection

• The convection HT mode is comprised of 2

mechanisms. Energy transfer due to:
– Random molecular motion (diffusion)
– Bulk motion of the fluid (advection)

y y
u Fluid

Temperature
Velocity distribution, T(y)
distribution, q”
u(y)
Ts

Heated surface
u(y) T(y)
 3. Convection
• Boundary Layer (???)
• Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer/Velocity Boundary Layer:
the region in fluid through which the velocity varies from 0 at the
surface to a finite value (u = 0.99 u)
Read about this in your Fluid Mechanics Book.
• Thermal Boundary Layer:
The region in fluid through which the temperature varies from Ts at y
= 0 to a finite value, i.e:
Ts  T
 0.99
Ts  T

Thermal BL could be smaller, larger or the same size as velocity BL.

In any case, if Ts > T, convection HT will occur from the surface to
the outer flow.
 3. Convection
• Convection HT may be classified according to the nature of the
flow:
– Forced convection ??? (read your book)
– Free (natural) convection ??? (read your book)
• Energy transferred could be either sensible or latent heat
(boiling and condensation).
• Regardless of the particular nature of the convection HT
process, the appropriate rate equation is known as Newton’s
Law of Cooling: q” = h(Ts - T)

h = convection HT coefficient [W/m2.K]

 3. Convection
• The convection HT Table 1.1 typical values of convection
coefficient, h, depends on HT coefficient
conditions in the boundary
layer, which are influenced Process h, W/m2.K
by: Free convection:
– surface geometry, Gases 2 – 25
Liquids 50 – 1000
– the nature of the fluid motion
– an assortment of fluid Forced convection:
thermodynamic and transport Gases 25 – 250
properties. Liquids 100 – 20,000
• Estimation of h is found in
table 1.5 of Cengel’s book Convection with
phase change
and table 1.1 of Incropera’s Boiling/
book. 2500 – 100,000
condensation
 4. Radiation

• Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter

that is at a finite temperature. The energy is
transported by electromagnetic waves
(photons). Radiation occurs most efficiently in a
vacuum, no need material medium.
4. Radiation
 4. Radiation

Radiation that is emitted by the

surface is called emissive power E.
Gas
The upper limit to the emissive power T, h
is prescribed by Stefan-Boltzmann
Law, i.e.: E =  T 4
b s E
G qconv”
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
 = 5.67 E-8 W/m2.K4.
Ts = absolute temperature of the
blackbody surface.
Kirchhoff’s law of radiation:
The emmisivity and absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and
wavelength are equal.
 4. Radiation
• The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less than Eb, i.e:
E =  Ts4
•  = emissivity with value: 1    0
• Radiation that is incident on a unit area of the surface is called
irradiation, G, that could be:
– Absorbed by the surface: Gabs = G
– Rejected (reflected) by the opaque surface: Greject = G
– Transmitted by semitransparent surface: Gtrans = G

G = Gabs + Greject + Gtrans

absorbed
1=++
 4. Radiation
• When a small surface at Ts is surrounded by a much larger isothermal
surface (ex: walls of a room) whose temperature Tsurr differs from Ts, the net
rate of radiation HT from the surface is:

q”rad = (Ts4 - Tsurr4) = hr (Ts – Tsurr)

qrad = hr A(Ts – Tsurr) hr = (Ts2 + Tsurr2)(Ts + Tsurr)

The total rate of HT from the surface:

q = qconv + qrad
Gas
T, h
Surroundings
at Tsurr
q = hA(Ts–T) + A(Ts4-Tsurr4)
q”rad q”conv
 5. Conservation of Energy

The 1st law of thermodynamics = the law of conservation of energy.

HT may be viewed as an extension of thermodynamics.
For closed system For open system
(control mass): (control volume):

Q 
W
W
U U
Q ui
uo
vi
boundary zi zo vo
Pvi
Pvo

Q – W = U
???
 5. Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume:
Total Thermal energy Total Change of
energy + generated within - energy = energy stored
enter CV CV leave CV within CV

Total energy enter/leave CV: heat, work, mass flow

Thermal energy generated: thermal energy that is created within
the CV due to conversion from other energy forms. Ex: from
chemical, electric, electromagnetic, nuclear.
Energy stored: internal energy, kinetics and potential energy.

Ein + Eg - Eout = Estored = (U + Ek + Ep)CV

 5. Conservation of Energy

   dEstored 
On a rate basis: Ein  Eg  Eout   Est
dt
For a time interval t: 
E out

E 
E
Ein+ Eg – Eout = Est
g st

E in
Control
volume

The “In” flow and “out” flow terms are surface phenomena.
The energy “generation” and energy “storage” terms is a volumetric
phenomenon.
 5. Conservation of Energy
The Surface Energy Balance

q”rad Surface energy balance

Tsur involves no mass or

surroundings
q”cond volume.
T1
q”conv Conservation
fluid
T
requirement becomes:
T2
x u T
T Ein – Eout = 0
Control surface

q”cond – q”conv - q”rad = 0

 6. Methodology in Solving HT Problems
Known : tulis apa yang diketahui dgn pendek/simbol & tepat
setelah membaca, jangan menulis ulang problem.
Find : tulis dengan singkat/simbol & tepat apa yang dicari.
Schematic : gambar skema sistem fisik, gambar control surface
dengan dashed-line, tulis HT yang ada dengan anak panah
untuk menunjukkan arahnya.
Analysis : mulai dengan Hukum Konservasi yang tepat, tulis analisa
selengkap mungkin sebelum men-substitusi nilai
numeriknya. Terakhir lakukan perhitungan.
Assumption : tulis semua asumsi yang diperlukan.
Properties : lengkapi properties yang diperlukan & tulis juga
sumbernya.
 5. Conservation of Energy
Example 1.2:
The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the
ambient air and its surroundings, which are at 25oC, by a brick
wall 0.15 m thick. The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2
W/m.K and a surface emissivity of 0.8 Under steady-state
conditions an outer surface temperature of 100oC is measured.
Free convection HT to the air adjoining the surface is
characterized by a convection coefficient of h = 20 W/m2.K.
What is the brick inner surface temperature? [352oC]
 6. Methodology in Solving HT Problems
Apply the methodology to example 1.2.

Known: Schematic:
Temperatur permukaan luar
T1 = ? T2 = 100oC
dinding furnace, properties
Tsur=25oC
dinding: ketebalan,  = 0.8
konduktivitas termal & q”cond q”rad
Combustion
emissivity. gases
q”conv
Kondisi ambient
T = 25oC
k = 1.2 W/m.K
h = 20 W/m2K
Find:
Temperatur permukaan Air
dalam dinding, T1. L = 0.15 m

x
 6. Methodology in Solving HT Problems
Apply the methodology to example 1.2.
Assumptions:
1. steady-state conditions
2. One-dimensional HT by conduction across the wall
3. Radiation exchange between the outer surface of the wall and the
surroundings (Tsur = 25oC) is between a small surface an a large enclosure.
Analysis:
Prinsip konservasi energi di permukaan luar dinding furnace:
Ein – Eout = 0 T1  T2
q”cond – q”conv – q”rad = 0 k
L

 hT2  T    T24  Tsur
4

Dari subsititusi nilai numerik, didapat T1 = 625 K.
Comments – homework:
Bagaimana signifikansi qrad terhadap qrad + qconv pada permukaan luar jika:
 Koef. Konveksi semakin besar
 Temperatur permukaan luar > 100oC? Temperatur permukaan luar < 100oC?
 Contoh soal

• The coating on a plate is cured by exposure to an infrared lamp

providing a uniform radiation of 2000 W/m2. It absorbs 80% of the
irradiation and has an emissivity of 0.50. It is also exposed to an air
flow and large surroundings for which temperatures are 20oC and
30oC, respectively.
1. If the convection coefficient between the plate and the ambient air
is 15 W/m2K, what is the cure temperature of the plate? [377 K]
2. Hasil akhir coating (keawetan dan ketahanan) tergantung pada T
proses ‘curing’. Salah satu cara mengatur Tcuring adalah dengan
mengatur kecepatan udara (air flow) yang berarti mengatur
convection coefficient, h. Bagaimana pengaruh h terhadap
Tpermukaan? Buat grafik Tpermukaan (= Tcuring) fungsi h, untuk 200 h  2
W/m2K. Jika diinginkan Tcuring = 50oC, berapa h? [51 W/m2K]
 7. Units And Dimensions
• Dimensi dasar: massa M, panjang L, waktu T, temperatur .
• Sistem unit/satuan:

Quantity SI English
Unit Symbol Unit Symbol
Mass Kilogram kg Pound mass lb
Length Meter m Foot ft
Time Second s Second s
El Current Ampere A Ampere A
Force Newton N Pound force lbf
(= 1 kg.m/s2) (= 32.174 lb.ft/s2)
Pressure Pascal Pa psi lbf/in2
Energy Joule J foot-pound or ft-lbf
British Thermal Unit BTU
 Problem:
• Soal dari buku Cengel, no. 1-100:
Consider a person standing in a room at 23°C. Determine the total rate of heat
transfer from this person if the exposed surface area and the skin temperature
of the person are 1.7 m2 and 32°C, respectively, and the convection heat
transfer coefficient is 5 W/m2·°C. Take the emissivity of the skin and the
clothes to be 0.9, and assume the temperature of the inner surfaces of the
room to be the same as the air temperature.

[161 W]