Http://www.meted.ucar.

edu-tropical –textbook_2nd_edition
Overview
This chapter focuses on remote sensing—the
primary method of observing weather and climate
across the global tropics. We will explore how
remote sensing is used and examine the types of
information that it provides over formerly data-void
regions. For example, recent airborne and
spaceborne radar images show the detailed
structure of tropical cyclones, helping us better
understand intensity changes.

Satellite microwave sensors are providing surface wind velocity over the oceans.
Dust and volcanic ash tracking, measurement of ocean, soil and land surface help
in hazard mitigation. We will also explore the use of non-meteorological satellites
for meteorological purposes.
Why Remote Sensing in the Tropics?
Surface and radiosonde observations are
sparse in the tropics, especially when
compared with the Northern
Hemisphere (Fig. 2.1). Primary among
the surface data-sparse regions are the
tropical oceans;
the Pacific Ocean alone occupies about one half of the circumference of the
equator. In a few regions, the surface network and regularity of reports have
diminished over the past two decades.1
Given these conditions, remote sensing is the primary, and sometimes only, means
of regular observations for most of the tropics. The World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) provides current information on the global system of
observations under its World Weather Watch program.
 Since 1964, satellite sensors have provided
routine observations for weather analysis.2
Satellites and aircraft remote sensors have
provided a wealth of information on hurricanes,
the most hazardous tropical weather system.
Satellite-based climate studies have produced
significant information about clouds and
precipitation, large-scale circulations, air-sea
interaction, air chemistry, and land surface
changes. The assimilation of satellite data into
numerical prediction models has improved
model performance
WMO Global Observing System, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/OSY/GOS.html
Current global data coverage, http://www.ecmwf.int/products/forecasts/d/charts/monitoring/coverage/
Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation,http://www.jcsda.noaa.gov/
(NOAA, NASA, US Navy, and US Air Force Partnership)
Introduction to Remote sensing
RS System capture radiation in different wavelength
reflected/ emitted by the earth’s surface features and
recorded it either directly on the film as in case of aerial
photography or in digital medium letter is used for
generating the images.
R.S. provides valuable data over vast area in a short time
about resources, meteorology and environment leading
to better resource management and accelerating national
development.
Remote Sensing -

Remote sensing is defined as the science which deals with obtaining information
about objects on earth surface by analysis of data, received from a remote
platform.

Remote sensing can be either passive or active. Active systems have their own
source of energy whereas the passive systems depend upon the solar illumination
or self emission for remote sensing

Principles of Remote Sensing

Detection and discrimination of objects or surface features means
detecting and recording of radiant energy reflected or emitted by objects
or surface material. Different objects return different amount and kind of
energy in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, incident upon
it. This unique property depends on the property of material
Basics of Remote Sensing by Radar and Satellite
Remote sensing applications in weather and
climate are possible because of the variety of ways
in which the atmosphere and other earth systems
interact with the electromagnetic spectrum (EM)
(Right Fig.). For example, snow scatters visible
light, water vapor absorbs infrared (IR) radiation,
and hail scatters microwave radiation. The portions
of the EM spectrum with little absorption by the
atmosphere are referred to as "windows" and are
used to observe surface properties. The
atmosphere is most transparent in the visible and
the microwave parts of the spectrum and opaque
in the IR except for a small window close to 10 μm.
Satellite sensors measure energy from particular
wavelengths, which are referred to as "channels"
Fig. 2.2. (a) The Electromagnetic Spectrum and (b) fraction of
and numbered in increasing order from shortwave Earth's radiation transmitted to space. The amount of radiation
to longwave. The visible, IR, and microwave transmitted is reduced because of absorption of radiation by
wavelengths are used most often in meteorology. different atmospheric gases.
 The Basis of Weather Radar
(a) Conceptual model of the basis of weather radar and
(b) radar reflectivity images from radar scans at four
elevation angles, 0.5, 2.4, 4.3, and 7.5 degrees.
The ability of objects to scatter radiation is the basis for
the radar applications in meteorology. Weather radars
operate by transmitting high-frequency microwave (mm-
cm scale) pulses to the atmosphere and measuring the
"backscatter" or echoed pulses to the radar (Fig. 2.3). The
returned signal is interpreted to determine where it is
precipitating. Typically the radar scans as the antenna is
raised through higher and higher preset angles to provide
a three-dimensional look at the atmosphere.
Note that weather radar is also used to track insects, migrating birds, and dust
storms.
The Global Satellite
Observation System
Satellites are the primary means of
obtaining global-scale observations (Left
Fig). They are grouped according to their
orbiting patterns:
• geostationary, which orbit at about
35,800 km above the equator and move
at the velocity of the earth's rotation;
• polar-orbiting, which orbit around the poles at approximately 850 km above
the surface, and
• research and development, which orbit between certain latitudes a few
hundred km above the surface.
Operational satellites are dedicated to weather analysis and forecasting. Data
are available in a timely manner for immediate use in hazard mitigation,
commerce, security, and daily life. Emphasis is placed on ensuring that these
services are not interrupted. Research satellite missions are dedicated to
particular scientific goals, such as the measurement of ozone in order to
document and understand climate change or the measurement of precipitation
to better understand the global energy and water cycle. Many research satellites
are designed to have a limited lifetime although some have lasted beyond the
expected mission duration and some have been applied to operations. For
example, the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite data have
been used extensively for monitoring hurricane intensity and position. With the
growing recognition of the need for long-term climate analysis, operational data
are being archived and used as climate data record.
Geostationary Satellites

Geostationary satellites sensors are most

useful for tracking atmospheric features over
great distances because of their high
temporal resolution (15 - 30 minute intervals,
or better) and hemispheric field of view (Fig.
2.5). However, the orbital distance of the
satellites means that their spatial resolution
is less than optimal for the identification of
features smaller than 1 km.

Above fig. Coverage area of the United States

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
Satellite sensors use either active or
passive sensing techniques. Active
Polar Orbiting Satellites
sensors send signals toward the
earth's surface and measure the
signal return (like a radar). Passive
sensors detect naturally occurring
radiation. While passive sensors
receive information from layers,
active sensors have the advantage of
measuring radiation from discrete
24-hour coverage of the EUMETSAT polar-orbiting satellite,
levels and producing, for example, MetOp.
vertical precipitation and clouds
profiles. Active sensors have higher
spatial resolution than passive
sensors.
Operational meteorological satellite agencies
•NOAA NESDIS (United States), http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/SatInformation.html
•EUMETSAT (Europe), http://www.eumetsat.int/
•Japanese Meteorological Agency, http://mscweb.kishou.go.jp/index.htm
•Russian Federation, http://sputnik.infospace.ru/goms/engl/goms_e.htm
•Chinese Meteorological Agency (People's Republic of China), http://www.cma.gov.cn/
•India Meteorological Department, http://www.imd.gov.in/section/satmet/dynamic/insat.htm
(Cloud images are not part of the WMO Global Observing System)

Comprehensive Large Array-data Stewardship System (CLASS), http://www.class.noaa.gov/

NOAA Geostationary Satellite Server, http://www.goes.noaa.gov/
Radiative Transfer
The energy per photon emitted is
E = hν, where h is Planck's constant (6.625 x 10-34 J s) and ν is
the frequency (s-1)

Radiance is the energy per unit The energy emitted per unit area (from all wavelengths and
time/wavelength/solid angle/area. The radiance represented by the area under the blackbody curve) is related
emitted by a blackbody is expressed by Planck's Law, to the absolute temperature through the Stefan-Boltzmann
and measured in units of W m-2 sr-1, Law,

where the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4.

Wien's Displacement Law

where λ = wavelength, T = temperature (K),

c1 = 1.1910439 × 10-16 W m-2 sr-1, and
c2 = 1.438769 × 10-2 m K.
 The energy emitted per unit area (from all wavelengths and
represented by the area under the blackbody curve) is related
to the absolute temperature through the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law,

Fig. 2B1.1. (left) Radiance for solar and thermal

blackbodies and (right) the same curves
annotated with the wavelengths of peak
emission for solar (Vis) and Thermal (LWIR) and
overlapping wavelengths (NearIR and SWIR).

Fig. 2B1.2. Solar spectral irradiance with color

shaded areas marking the absorption by
atmospheric gases.
Orbital and Scanning Geometry
Geostationary satellites are, in essence, motionless above a point on the equator,
usually referred to as the subsatellite point. With an orbit of about 35,800 km,
geostationary satellites have a hemispheric field of view. Polar orbiting satellites at
850 km have a smaller field of view with higher spatial resolution.
The figure (Next Fig., left) shows the true relative distances of geostationary and
polar orbiting satellites. From geostationary altitude, the entire Earth disk only
subtends an angle of 17.4 degrees. A typical polar orbiting satellite sees a
relatively small portion of the globe at any one time.
As polar-orbiting satellites move around the globe, their instruments take
measurements along their track. Instruments scan across their orbit track, scan
conically, or scan like a push broom. Below is an example of a polar-orbiting
satellite conical scanning geometry (Next Fig.).
(left) Geometry of geostationary and polar orbiting satellite
systems and
(right) the scan geometry of the SSM/I polar orbiting satellite.
Animations of Satellite Scanning Geometry,
Conical, Cross-track, Pushbroom
Ground-based Weather Radar
Hurricane Donna was one of the early tropical
cyclones observed by radar (left Fig. a). Hurricane
precipitation features can now be examined in
greater detail with Doppler radar (left Fig. b), which
measures the position and radial velocity of objects.

(a)Radar image of Hurricane Donna and

(b)Doppler radar image of Hurricane Ivan. Image of
Hurricane Ivan is courtesy of the National
Meteorological Service of Jamaica.
 Radar images of convective weather systems during TWPICE.
(a) Westerly wind regime on 16-17 Jan 2006.
(b) Easterly wind regime on 18 Feb 2006.
(Images courtesy of Dr. Peter May)
The assimilation of radar data into numerical weather prediction (NWP) models has been shown to improve the prediction of
thunderstorm structure and the amount of precipitation expected within 0-6 hours.7,8 For more information on the assimilation
of radar data into NWP models, see the lecture by Dr. Juanzhen Sun at http://meted.ucar.edu/AMS_Radar05/index.htm.
Airborne Doppler Radar
Doppler radars have been flying on research aircraft since the first prototype
was tested in 1982.9 Airborne Doppler radars are advantageous for studying
individual storm cells and mesoscale weather phenomena because:
• They have very high spatial and temporal resolution. For example, the
dual-beam Electra Doppler Radar (ELDORA), developed jointly by NCAR
and the French government, is noted for its horizontal sampling resolution
of about 0.4 km,10,11 which is an order of magnitude better than most
ground-based radars
• They operate in or near the phenomena of interest
Conceptual model of the airborne Doppler radar scanning
techniques and the beam pattern for a single aircraft.(Image
courtesy of Dr. David Jorgensen)
(a) Radar reflectivity composite image of Hurricane Rita taken
by ELDORA, 22 Sep 2005, during the Hurricane Rainband
and Intensity Change Experiment (RAINEX). The flight track
is marked by little airplane icons.
(b) (b) Cross-section through Hurricane Rita about an hour
later. (Image courtesy of Mr. Michael Bell and Dr. Wen-Chau
Lee)
New observations by airborne Doppler radars allow us to observe cellular and
banded precipitation structures within the eyewall and rainbands of tropical
cyclones (above Fig.). Transformation of these structures has been linked to
changes in the intensity of tropical cyclones.14 High resolution images are
allowing scientists to examine fine-scale changes and relate them to
structures predicted in theoretical studies and NWP models. The Figure
shows a number of interesting features hitherto unobserved, such as
filaments of very high reflectivity that are oblique to the concentric eyewall
and rainbands. These structures are affected by varying winds as they move
around the eyewall and provide clues about how eyewalls transform during
rapid changes in intensity.
most commonly used airborne Doppler platforms and systems
NOAA P-3, http://www.eol.ucar.edu/projects/vortex95/wp3.html
NCAR ELDORA, http://www.eol.ucar.edu/rsf/eldora/eldora.html
University of Wyoming, http://www-das.uwyo.edu/wcr/
NASA EDOP, http://ghrc.nsstc.nasa.gov/camex3/instruments/edop.html
Satellite-based Precipitation Radar
The first satellite-based precipitation radar (PR) was launched in
1997 on the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM)
satellite, providing the first continuous precipitation
measurements of the entire tropics. The TRMM PR provides
better descriptions of the vertical structure of storms than
ground-based radar because of the angle at which it is able to
view them.15
In addition, it does not have range-related problems, such as variations in sensitivity or
regional variations in radar calibration.16 The disadvantage is that the PR, which has a
247-km swath (Fig. 2.11), can observe each location only once or twice per day. This low
temporal resolution means that the TRMM PR must be used in combination with other
observations for weather analysis and forecasting. By providing more precise
measurements of precipitation in the tropics, where most of the world's rain falls,17 the
TRMM PR has improved our knowledge of the global energy and water cycle.
Wind Profilers and Boundary Layer Applications

(a) Conceptual model of a wind profiler and particles that

scatter the radar beam and
(b) time-height plot of wind velocity over Ruskin, Florida. The
sea-breeze front is marked by the black box.
Upper-tropospheric Radar Applications
The tropical tropopause and lower
stratosphere are observed at high
resolution using the Equatorial
Atmosphere Radar (EAR), a VHF
wind profiler (Right Fig.).

(a) Photograph of the EAR and

(b) zonal wind speed near the tropopause where
turbulence is indicated by breaks in an upper
tropospheric equatorial wave.19 (Courtesy, Dr. H.
Hashiguchi, Research Institute for Sustainable
Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, 1 Aug.
2004).
The EAR has operated at the equator in Indonesia since July 2001. Its purpose is to
observe winds and turbulence between 1.5 km and 20 km (troposphere and lower-
stratosphere) and irregularities in the ionosphere above 90 km. It has high time
and space resolution (1.5 mins and 150 m, respectively). EAR observations of wind
velocity help to identify wave features associated with troposphere-stratosphere
exchange (Page 29 Fig. b)19 in one of the most convectively active regions of the
world.
The EAR is part of a growing regional network of radars and other instruments
aimed at improving our knowledge of how cumulus convection and equatorial
waves affect weather and climate, regionally and globally.
Infrared Water Vapor
Water vapor emits radiation in the
6.7 μm IR wavelength. Images of
water vapor emission, as seen on
geostationary satellite loops, trace
motion at high and mid levels in
the atmosphere. IR water vapor
images are commonly used for
detecting upper-level short-
waves,
jets, and thunderstorm tops. Bright areas show where the satellite senses water
vapor high in the troposphere, such as the tops of thunderstorms where the
temperature is cold. Dark areas indicate where the upper troposphere is dry and
the sensor is able to see farther down into the troposphere, where it is warmer.
This example illustrates that the IR water vapor
image provides insufficient information and must be
supplemented by other images. Notice that where
the water vapor image has a relatively dark area, the
visible image shows some clouds. While the middle-
upper level is dry, the lower troposphere has high
relative humidity. You may also have noticed that
the very light grey areas around the upper-level low
and the tropical wave indicate moist conditions. On
examination of the visible image, the area around
the upper level low is relatively cloud free, indicating
fairly dry conditions in the lower troposphere.
Around the tropical wave, both the water vapor and
visible images indicate high relative humidity
throughout the troposphere.

If these images are relied on solely, atmospheric

conditions may be misdiagnosed when the low-level
moisture is different from that of the mid-upper
troposphere. Therefore, more information should be
considered in analyzing the distribution of
atmospheric water vapor.
Satellite Microwave Estimates of Water Vapor
Early satellite estimates of near-
surface humidity were based on
empirical relationships between
monthly mean precipitable water
and in situ observations of specific
humidity.20,21 Now estimates of
specific humidity are made directly
from the satellite microwave
sensors such as the Defense Near-surface specific humidity measured by SSM/I and AMSU-B
Meteorological Satellite Program for 23 April 1999.22

(DMSP) Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) observations and the NOAA
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit B (AMSU-B). Above Figure shows an example
of surface specific humidity as measured by the SSM/I and AMSU-B instruments.22
 Estimates of total column
water vapor can be estimated
from newer satellite sensors
such as the NASA Advanced
Scanning Microwave
Radiometer Earth observing
system (AMSR-E), which was
launched in 2002 (Left Fig.).
Atmospheric water vapor for September 2005 as measured by AMSR-E.
Satellite Soundings
With the scarcity of radiosonde
observations in the tropics
(Right Fig.), satellite soundings
are the primary means of
observing how moisture is
distributed through the tropical
troposphere. The first attempts
Global radiosonde network. White lines mark ±30° latitude
to profile the
atmosphere from space used geostationary satellite data to estimate precipitable
water and total column water vapor. New observations have taken advantage of
the signals from the Global Positioning System (GPS) network of defense satellites.
The assimilation of satellite soundings can significantly improve the forecasts of
temperature and moisture variable; however, the model performance can still
depend on the quality of the satellite retrievals.23
GOES, POES, and DMSP Soundings
GOES, POES, and DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program)Special Sensor
Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS) satellite sensors are able to measure
temperature and moisture changes with height because atmospheric gases absorb
certain wavelengths of outgoing radiation and that absorption occurs preferentially
at different heights. A weighting function indicates the relative contributions to the
outgoing radiance from various levels of the atmosphere and therebydetermines
the layer of the atmosphere that is sensed for a given wavelength or spectral band.
Sounders from the past two decades used about 20 spectral bands, while current
sounders are hyperspectral i.e., they use an order of magnitude more bands. For
example, the polar-orbiting NASA Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) uses 65
spectral radiances for temperature, 42 for water vapor, 26 for ozone, and 23 for
surface temperature. Hyperspectral sounders provide profiles of about 1 K/1-2 km
depth. The next generation of geostationary satellites will have a hyperspectral IR
sounder.
Polar-orbiting sounders have
horizontal resolutions on the order
of 1-10 km across swaths, which are
on the order of 1000 km (Right Fig.).
Geostationary sounders provide
continuous observations on a
hemispheric scale with an
approximately 8 km horizontal
resolution. Geostationary satellite
images also provide estimates of
wind velocity around the globe
(Right Fig.). Geostationary satellites
also provide continuous estimated
winds derived from water vapor
cloud tracks (Right Fig.).

Outgoing long wave radiance curves for
terrestrial temperatures and the
absorption by atmospheric gases at
different wavelengths or bands.
Basis of Satellite Sounding Retrievals
Satellite remote sensing is optimized for different parts of the spectrum based
on wavelength, amount of energy, and altitude of the peak transmission or
absorption by different gases and aerosols. Emission and absorption can only
occur at discrete wavelengths related to the molecular structure of gases or
aerosols. Within the molecules, various possible energy transitions are
associated with a series of signature wavelengths. The outgoing radiance (Left
Fig.) is marked by absorption bands.
By selecting different sounding wavelengths, the observed radiances can be
used to infer temperature and humidity profiles as well as cloud top pressures.
 The emission source has to be a
relatively abundant gas of known and
uniform distribution. Carbon dioxide is
one of the gases that occurs in uniform
abundance below about 100 km. The
(left) Schematic of radiance emitted by carbon dioxide at 13.3 choice of sounding wavenumbers
μm and (right) the corresponding weighting function for that requires understanding of weighting
wavelength.
functions,
which indicate the relative radiance contributed from various levels of the
atmosphere. For instance, the 13.3 micron carbon dioxide weighting function
shows that most of the energy emitted at this wavelength originates near the low-
middle troposphere, as illustrated below (Above Fig.).
In general, discrete sounder bands are chosen so that the atmosphere becomes
progressively more opaque from one spectral band to the next. With increasing
opacity, the sensed signal comes from higher and higher in the atmosphere.
Sounder versus Radiosonde
Satellite sounders provide layer mean temperature and
moisture, as opposed to radiosondes, which provide level-
specific temperature and pressure. Satellite sounders smooth
vertical features, but capture the mean vertical profile very
well. An example of each is presented in the right Figure.
In particular, the GOES sounder:
• Cannot sense through clouds, which is a disadvantage compared
with radiosondes.
• Provides 10-km average measurements in the horizontal while
radiosonde observations are single-point measurements that are far
apart (Fig. at page 33).
• Provides a relatively high, hourly temporal resolution compared to
the conventional 12-hour radiosonde observations. The timely
information from the GOES sounder can improve mesoscale analysis
and nowcasting of severe weather if used to diagnose the pre-
convective environment (for example, moisture gradients and
boundary layer cold pools) before significant cloud formation.

(a) POES sounding and

(b) radiosonde sounding for Medford, Oregon.
 Satellite-derived Winds
Wind velocity is derived from automatic tracking of water vapor
features in the mid-upper troposphere and cloud elements in
the lower troposphere24,25 (Left Fig.). The latter is limited to
areas that are free of thick clouds. The assignment of heights is
one of the main limitations to the accuracy of feature-tracked
winds.

(a) Satellite-derived mid-to-upper-level winds and

(b) low-level winds

Soundings from GPS Radio Occultation
(a) Conceptual model of how an atmospheric profile
is derived from GPS occultation
Radio occultation is the technique by which satellite
receivers intercept signals from GPS and infer the
deviations in the signal's path caused by temperature
and moisture gradients (Fig. 2.20). The technique was
first used in the late 1960s to study the atmospheres
of distant planets.
The MetOp satellite carries the first instrument,
Global Navigation Satellite System Receiver and
Atmospheric Sounding (GRAS), to use radio
occultation for the operational use of GPS satellites
for atmospheric sounding. Constellation Observing
System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate
(COSMIC) consists of six satellites launched in 2006 as
part of a joint Taiwan-US project to obtain profiles of
atmospheric temperature and moisture at high
spatial and temporal resolution using GPS satellites.
b) sample sounding of temperature and humidity, c) tropical temperature profiles of the upper-
troposphere and lower stratosphere.
 Expected COSMIC soundings (green) and
radiosondes (red) per day

The spatial resolution of COSMIC soundings is a special boon to the tropics where radiosonde
profiles are few and far between (Fig. 2.21). The assimilation of GPS soundings into numerical
prediction models has improved hurricane forecasts as demonstrated in simulations on the
COSMIC website, http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/. You can learn more about radio occultation in
the COSMIC webcast, http://www.meted.ucar.edu/COSMIC/.
Surface-based GPS Meteorology
Surface-based GPS soundings are derived
from the measurement of the signal
propagation delay caused by the
atmosphere above the receiver. The surface
network of GPS receivers (Right Fig.)
provides autonomous, frequent, and
accurate observation of water vapor content
at the surface. The ability of this technique
to provide highly accurate measurements of
atmospheric water vapor content has been
established since 1992.
While the vertical and temporal resolution of the data is very good, its horizontal resolution is
poor because of the relatively small number of stations operating globally. Therefore, surface
GPS measurements can be applied effectively to the analysis of the passage of frontal boundaries
or time series at a point but must be used in combination with other data for regional or
continental-scale analysis.
 Observing Tropical Clouds

We use cloud patterns to find weather phenomena, such as the ITCZ, tropical
cyclones, sea breezes, and tornadoes. Clouds cover almost two-thirds of the
earth's surface28 and help to regulate the radiation balance of the earth-
atmosphere system.29 Satellite remote sensing is the primary method of
observing and documenting global cloud radiative properties. A variety of new
satellite sensors also help us understand more about cloud structure, forms,
and microphysical properties.
Three-dimensional (3-D) Cloud Structure

The 3-D nature of clouds is

evident from visible satellite
images in which protruding
clouds create shadows,
especially at low sun angles
(Right Fig. a). Cloud top heights
can be estimated from satellite
(a) Visible and (b) IR satellite images of cloud systems over the measurements of IR radiance
southwest Pacific. emitted from the cloud top,
which is a function of the absolute temperature. Generally, in the tropics warmer cloud tops are
lower and colder cloud tops are higher (Above Fig.b). During the most recent decade, new
satellite sensors with simultaneous, multi-angle observations have provided 3-D views of
clouds.30
 Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (MISR)

The Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer

(MISR), which was launched on the NASA Terra
satellite in 1999, views clouds from nine
different angles (for example, Fig. 2.24) and
locates them in three dimensions. It scans at
blue, green, red, and near-IR wavelengths
(0.446, 0.558, 0.672, 0.866 µm, respectively),
has spatial resolution of 275 m across a 360-km
swath, and achieves global coverage about
once every 9 days at the equator.
MISR Images of clouds over Florida

As the angle of the view changes, the clouds appear to move, an effect known as parallax. (You
can experience it by placing a finger in front of your face and looking at it with one eye at a time.
Your finger will appear to move.)
Let us see how this effect is put to work in satellite meteorology. Click on the
animation link above to see a small movie of clouds over Florida or link to a
larger file of the same movie at NASA's Visible Earth. The greater apparent
motion of the cirrus and cumulus tells us that the cirrus is higher. Cloud location
in 3-D can be combined with other information, such as the amount of sunlight
reflected, to identify different cloud types. Subsequently, it may be possible to
understand how each type of cloud affects the global radiation balance.
Cloud Forms

Satellite images allow us to distinguish among cloud forms or

morphology. For example, cellular boundary layer clouds are easily
identified in geostationary visible (1-km resolution) or true color
higher resolution images (Right Fig.).
Cellular convection occurs when a layer of fluid is warmed at the base
or cooled at the top. Open cells indicate air that is sinking in the
middle and rising on the edges. Closed cells indicate that air is rising
in the middle and sinking on the edges. Both of these cloud forms
occur under synoptically stable conditions. Hexagonal cells are
typically observed where the air-sea temperature difference is more
than 3°C and the wind speeds are less than 7 m s-1. The association of
cloud forms with particular boundary layer conditions was first
described by Woodcook,31 who observed the soaring patterns of birds
over the tropical ocean.

Operational geostationary IR and visible images provide the most

frequent views of cloud forms and types.
 Microphysical Parameters of Clouds
CloudSat, launched in 2006, is the first millimeter-wavelength cloud radar in space. It detects smaller liquid drops and ice than
weather radar and, thus, provides more information about the cloud mass.32 CloudSat measurements provide a means for
inferring cloud properties such as particle concentrations, cloud liquid water, and precipitation intensity, which can be used to
understand climate variability.

In right Figure, we see the

CloudSat profile through
Tropical Storm Ernesto. A broad
area of high reflectivity extends
south of the mountains of the
Dominican Republic.

(a) CloudSat profile through Tropical Storm Ernesto

Red and orange areas indicate the presence of large amounts of cloud water and/or ice while blue areas above indicate cloud ice.
Wavy blue lines along the bottom of the cloud mass indicate intense rainfall. The top-down satellite-IR view misses two small
thunderstorms beneath the cirrus anvil. The role of orographic lift in producing large amounts of cloud water is indicated by high
reflectivity along the mountain peaks. At the same altitude over the ocean, reflectivity values are mostly lower. You can learn
more about CloudSat in Focus Section 1.
(b) orbit segment overlaid on GOES
enhanced-IR image, 26 August
2006.
IR Estimates of Precipitation
Infrared (IR) emissions are most useful for estimating precipitation from convective clouds
because higher, and thus colder, cloud tops correlate with higher precipitation rates (Belw Fig). To
estimate precipitation, IR temperatures are averaged over various areas and times.
Those averages are then compared with
precipitation measurements to arrive at an
operational temperature-precipitation
correlation. One example of this is the GOES
Precipitation Index (GPI), which uses 235K as
the IR temperature with the best correlation to
average precipitation for areas spanning 50-
250 km over 3-24 hours.
Enhanced IR image illustrating various cloud top temperatures
and their associated rain rates (mm hr-1).
The primary advantage of IR-based techniques
is the high temporal frequency of images, for
example, up to 15 minutes for GOES and
Meteosat Second Generation (MSG)
geostationary satellites. IR-only techniques are
at a disadvantage compared with radar because
the lower-resolution satellite IR cannot detect
convective-scale structure and rain from warm Time-average precipitation directly analyzed bias (1996-2003)
clouds. In addition, thick cirrus and convective for the GPI satellite estimates in mm day-1. The contour interval
is 1 mm day-1, with the zero contour omitted and shading as
precipitation appear similar. This means that indicated
satellite IR-only techniques
tend to underestimate precipitation early in the lifecycle of convective systems when warm rain
processes dominate, and overestimate precipitation in the decaying stages when cold cirrus is
common. The GPI has a large bias over equatorial Africa and Indonesia,33 where virga may be
interpreted as surface rainfall, and over high mountains, where snow may be interpreted as
precipitation (Above Fig.).
 5.3 Microwave Observations of Clouds and Precipitation
Starting with the DMSP SSM/I in 1987, microwave
satellite sensors have fundamentally changed how we
discern cloud properties and measure precipitation from
satellites because they directly detect precipitation in
clouds—an advantage over IR-techniques, which have
difficulty distinguishing between precipitating and non-
precipitating clouds. The SSM/I sensors measure the
microwave scattering and emission signatures of liquid
water or ice particles.
Microwave detection of precipitation uses several
channels, which are usually described by their frequency
in gigahertz (GHz). Some channels are located in window
regions where the atmospheric gases absorb very little
radiation (Right Fig.). These windows allow the satellite
sensors to "see" the surface, even through clouds. Both
the window and high absorption regions are used to
derive various products for identifying surface and cloud
The microwave portion of the EM spectrum and its
properties.
relative location on the EM spectrum.
 Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I)

The characteristics and measurement capabilities of

current satellite microwave sensors (as of 2007) are
described here and summarized in Appendix B.
For the SSM/I, the brightness temperatures at 37 and 85
GHz (Page 53 Fig. ) are used to infer the quantity of liquid
water and ice in a column, which correlates well to
surface precipitation. Both scattering and emission-
based methods are used to identify rainfall. Emission
techniques work well over the ocean where the
background emissivity from the ocean surface is low and
uniform. Over land, the background emissivity is higher
and more variable, making it difficult to distinguish
raindrops. The SSM/I 85 GHz channel is strongly Time-average precipitation directly analyzed bias (1996-
scattered by ice and is used to define rain intensity. 2003) for the SSM/Ic satellite estimates in mm day-1.
Therefore, precipitation-retrievals over land rely upon a The contour interval is 1 mm day-1, with the zero
measure of scattering. contour omitted and shading as indicated (Smith et al.
2006
The SSM/Ic bias is largest in the Northern Hemisphere in winter, when the
precipitation estimate is lower than gauges33 (Page 54 Fig.). Contributing factors
may be sampling gaps or incorrect removal of data due to surface snow and ice
cover. Over Indonesia, biases may be due to the abundance of high clouds. Like
the GPI, the SSM/Ic has a large bias over equatorial Africa where hydrometeors
detected by the satellite do not reach the surface.
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU)
The AMSU includes channels at 89 and 150 GHz that are well-suited for
detecting ice particles. The AMSU precipitation product is based on the
scattering of microwaves by ice particles. The equations used to determine the
AMSU-derived precipitation allow for more accurate retrievals over land. This
contrasts with the earlier SSM/I emission algorithms, which are more suitable
for rainfall detection in marine environments.
 TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI)

The TRMM Microwave Imager, or TMI,

measures the intensity of radiation at
10, 19, 22, 37, and 85 GHz. The four
higher frequencies are similar to the
SSM/I. The 10 GHz channel was
designed to provide a more linear
response for the high rainfall rates
common in tropical rainfall. By virtue of
being in a lower orbit, the TMI provides
Comparison of rainfall distribution measured by the DMSP
better resolution than the SSM/I or the SSM/I, NOAA AMSU, and NASA TMI.
AMSU (Fig. 2.31). The TMI will
eventually be replaced by even better
instruments on the GPM satellites.
 Advanced Scanning Microwave Radiometer (AMSR-E)

The NASA AMSR-E is a recent addition to the

sensors used to measure precipitation (Right
Fig.). The frequencies of the AMSR are 6.9,
10.7, 18.7, 23.8, 36.5, and 89.0 (horizontal
and vertical polarization), and 50.3 and 52.8
GHz (vertical polarization only). The AMSR-E
sensor is similar to the SSM/I and TMI. Over
the ocean, the AMSR-E can "see" through
smaller cloud particles to measure the
microwave emission from the larger
raindrops. Over land, the AMSR-E can
measure the scattering effects of large ice
particles which later melt to form raindrops.
These measurements are converted to rain
rates using a cloud model.
Comparison of radar and AMSR-E precipitation estimates.
 Summary of microwave satellite instrument characteristics

SSM/I AMSU-B TRMM TMI AMSR-E

Spectral Bands 89, 150, & three at ~ 6.9, 10.7, 18.7, 23.8,
19, 22, 37, 85 10.7, 19, 22, 37, 85
(GHz) 183 36.5, 89
Horizontal 4.6 x 6.95 km at 6 x 4 km at 89 GHz
12.5 km at 85.5 GHz
Resolution 16.3 km 85.5 GHz to 45 km to 74 x 43 km at 6.9
to 50 km at 19 GHz
(at nadir) at 10.7 GHz GHz
Swath Width
1400 2343 780 1440
(km)
Unique characteristics of microwave identification of clouds
and precipitation include:

At 85-91 GHz At 37 GHz

• Deep convection appear relatively cold
• Water clouds and moist air masses have warm
brightness temperatures over water surfaces
• Imagery can penetrate thin cirrus canopies and reveal
internal storm structure
• Imagery is able to distinguish deep convection, but can
not always see low-level circulations when associated
primarily with low-level water clouds
• Spatial resolution higher than for imagery at lower
microwave frequencies
• Water clouds and precipitating clouds appear warm against
a relatively cold ocean
• Upwelling radiation is largely unaffected by ice particles,
which allows imagery to highlight low-level cloud features
• Imagery resolves details missed by 85-91 GHz
• Imagery shows regions of low-level clouds and rain
5.4 Satellite Observation of Tropical Cyclone

One of the first and most important applications of

satellite observations in the tropics has been the
estimation of tropical cyclone position and intensity.
Since the earliest images, the spiraling tropical
cyclones have been among the most easily identified
features. In addition to identifying tropical cyclone
features, enhanced IR images are used to estimate
intensity. A special enhancement known as the BD
curve is used to identify the cold cloud tops associated
with intense convection. Dvorak34 developed a
technique, which has since been updated and
automated,35 that associates intensity of cyclones with
the temperature of the eye cloud organization, and
surrounding environment. Right Figure shows changes
in the cloud organization, central area of the cyclone,
and rain bands as Tropical Cyclone Indlala became
more intense. During 13 and 14 March, the formation
of a small eye (with warmer temperatures relative to
the eyewall) and the expanded area of very cold cloud
in bands around the eye indicate the increased
intensity. IR-BD enhanced images of Tropical Cyclone Indlala with central pressure of (a) 994
hPa, (b) 984 hPa, (c) 967 hPa, and (d) 927 hPa.
Microwave sensors have improved the
detection of internal cyclone structure, such as
the location of the eye, because those
wavelengths are sensed through high clouds
that sometimes obscure the eye in IR images.
For example in Left Figure, it is difficult to
identify the eye of Tropical Cyclone Indlala
from the IR and visible images. However, the
eye shows up prominently in the 85 GHz
microwave images. Details of the Dvorak
technique and its adaptations, as well as other
tools used for the assessment of tropical
cyclone intensity will be covered in the
chapter on tropical cyclones.
6. Lightning Detection from Space
Lightning, a deadly hazard, is ubiquitous across the
tropics, especially the tropical continents, where the
highest rates occur.36 Satellite sensors produce a regional
to global-scale view of lightning activity,37 unlike most
ground-based detectors, which are limited to land areas
and detect only cloud-to-ground lightning. Lightning
variability is an indicator of thunderstorm severity, the
microphysical properties of clouds, and variability in the
natural production of nitrogen compounds.
The first satellite lightning sensor was the Optical
Transient Detector (OTD),37 which observed lightning
globally from a low-earth-orbit satellite between 1995
and 2000. Annual averaged number of lightning flashes per km2 from
merged LIS and OTD gridded data. White lines mark the limits of
the LIS observations.

The Global Hydrology Resource Center (GHRC) Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS),38 an improved version of the OTD, on the TRMM
satellite, has observed lightning in the tropics since 1997. Annual average flash rates derived from the LIS and OTD show that
central Africa has the highest density of lightning flashes (Above Fig.). The Fast Onorbit Recording of Transient Events (FORTE)39
instrument has been observing lightning globally since 1997 and the DMSP Operational Linescan System (OLS) detects nighttime
global lightning.

Lightning, clouds, and city lights
detected by the DMSP OLS.
The LIS has a small, solid-state camera with special filters that admit only the peak optical
wavelength emitted by lightning. It maintains a 90% detection efficiency by separating
background emissions from weak lightning signals. The camera views a 600 km-wide swath,
and each LIS pixel covers 5-10 km on the ground, enabling it to resolve storm cells that might
have lightning. The OTD operated by detecting the momentary changes in an optical scene
that occur with lightning. The sensor viewed a 1300 swath with a spatial resolution of 10 km
and had a 40-65% detection rate.37
The OLS has two telescopes and a photomultiplier tube that allows nighttime visible imaging
across a 1080 km swath. The OLS produces nighttime views of cities, fires, some clouds, and
lightning. Lightning appears as horizontal streaks in the smoothed 2.7 x 2.7 km OLS images
(Fig. 2.36). For more information about the OLS and new instruments for nighttime lightning
detection access http://www.meted.ucar.edu/npoess/viirs/.
Lightning detection by FORTE is based on the electromagnetic radio frequency energy that a
lightning flash produces. Each phase of a lightning flash radiates in a specific frequency band
that is recorded by a VHF instrument. Two optical instruments are used to confirm the
occurrence of lightning.

The space shuttle cameras have also served as lightning observers from space. Video recordings from space shuttle missions
provided confirmation of upper atmospheric optical flashes (called sprites, blue-jets, starters, and ELVES) that had been reported
by pilots and ground-observers years earlier. Space observations of electrical pulses in the stratosphere and ionosphere above
thunderstorms confirmed early sightings.
The next series of GOES will carry lightning sensors to aid short-term weather analysis and forecasting on a global scale.
7 Scatterometry
7.1 Surface Wind Velocity
Ocean surface wind observations are essential for short-term
forecasting, climatology, and oceanography. Microwave
satellite sensors are the primary means of observing the global
ocean surface because they are sensitive to small-scale
roughness (e.g., foam, breaking waves) on the ocean surface
caused by near surface winds. The SeaWinds scatterometer on
the QuikSCAT satellite, launched by NASA in June 1999,
provides high resolution ocean surface wind vectors. QuikSCAT
views an 1800 km-wide swath of the surface, which means that
a given location is viewed at most twice per day. Wind
measurements are retrieved on a 25 km x 25 km spatial scale.

a) Conceptual model of wind vector retrievals

using scatterometry
 The scatterometer infers near
surface wind velocity by sending
pulses of microwave energy to
the ocean surface and
measuring the backscatter from
small-scale waves (Page 64,65
Fig. ). Scatterometer-derived
winds can be used to track
atmospheric weather systems
such as tropical waves.

b) an example of scatterometer-derived winds over the

tropical Atlantic.
7.2 Precipitation Estimates from Scatterometry
Satellite observations are sometimes used in ways unanticipated by
the instrument developers. The rainfall attenuation that is a
disadvantage for wind retrieval has become valuable for rainfall
measurement. Recent studies have shown that the backscatter from
the rain volume in the atmosphere can be used to estimate rain
rates.41 Using a technique known as "differential reflectivity," the
scatterometer is able to discriminate between small spherical rain
drops and large, oblate (flattened) raindrops. At rain rates greater than
5 mm hr-1 (when the rain volume has more large, oblate drops), the
horizontal polarization of the radar signal exceeds the vertical
polarization. The dual polarization of the scatterometer enables the
measurement of rain rate (Right Fig).

Comparison between SeaWinds rain-rate estimates averaged over 0.5° to

match TMI data that lie within the horizontally-polarized swath of the
radar. The upper graph is the TMI measurement. The lower graph shows
the SeaWinds rain-rate estimates. The spatial pattern of rainfall
detection by SeaWinds matches the TMI very well. Note that the
colorbases are not identically calibrated. (Image courtesy of Dr. David
Weissman, data from NASA)
8 Satellite Detection of Dust
While we have primarily focused on detecting clouds and
precipitation, it is also vital to track the opposite extreme-dry
air. The dry, hot air and dust of the Sahara feeds the far-
reaching Saharan Air Layer (SAL), which has a great impact on
the weather and climate of the tropics.42 The SAL has large
amounts of mineral dust and strong winds (~10-25 m s-1). The
endless supply of dust has adverse socio-economic impacts on
health, agriculture, and marine life.
Special products derived from geostationary satellite sensors
(GOES and Meteosat) are used to track dust and other aerosols
(airborne particles). The detection of dust from satellites uses
the differencing of IR channels (Right Fig.), mid-level water
vapor, and multi-spectral true color imagery.

Split window technique to differentiate dust from thin cirrus.

A dramatic outbreak of Sahara dust, which reduced visibility
across northern Africa, the Canary Islands, and the
Mediterranean in March 2004, could be tracked using these
satellite products (Right Fig.).

Saharan dust outbreak during

March 2004 as seen by
composite IR channels on
Meteosat-8.
The SAL inhibits the intensification of
tropical cyclones.42 The lifecycle of
Hurricane Erin illustrates the impact of
the SAL on hurricane intensification
(RightbFig.). Dry air and enhanced
vertical wind shear from the strong
winds in the SAL kept the tropical
cyclone weak. Erin strengthened rapidly
over the western Atlantic after escaping
the SAL.

Interactions of Hurricane Erin and the SAL, September 2001.

False color enhancements can be used to identify dust over land and water
(Right Fig. ). The COMET webcast, Dust Enhancement Techniques Using MODIS
and SeaWiFs, http://www.meted.ucar.edu/npoess/dust_enh/, has more
information about dust enhancement on satellite images.
Since June 2006, the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite
Observation (CALIPSO) mission has provided vertical profiles of dust and
other aerosols. Its mission is to help scientists understand the impact of
clouds and aerosols on Earth's weather, climate, and air quality. The satellite
carries a lidar, an active sensor that is like radar, except that it emits short
pulses of green and IR light. The light pulses are reflected from cloud and
aerosol particles thereby producing a vertical profile of the atmosphere. Each
lidar sample profile is 300-feet long. The profiles are collected and streamed
together to create a vertical slice of our atmosphere along the satellite orbit.
The satellite also carries passive IR and visible imaging systems. CALIPSO and
CloudSat observations are taken just 15 seconds apart, which enables MODIS false color image showing dust
plumes from the Arabian desert.
scientist to study how aerosols and clouds interact.
9 Monitoring Earth's Surface from Space
9.1 Surface Water: Sea Surface, Soil Wetness, Floods

Satellite remote sensing of the Earth's surface is based on two

SST anomalies associated with the
2002-2003 El Niño (detected by
AMSR-E). Warm anomalies are red;
cool anomalies are blue.
critical properties of microwave radiation, polarization and an
electrical property known as the dielectric effect (a dielectric
has low electrical conductivity). Water surfaces are strong
polarizers of microwave radiation, which leads to strong
reductions in emissivity and brightness temperature.
Anomalous changes in the properties of the water surface, such
as its density and temperature, can be monitored from space.
This includes the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies
associated with El Niño (Fig. 2.43). Land surfaces are generally
weak polarizers, making emissivity and brightness temperature
significantly greater and resulting in a strong contrast with
water.
The amount of microwave radiation
emitted by the soil diminishes significantly
as soil moisture increases.43 Very dry soil
will appear relatively bright/warmer to a
microwave sensor, while saturated soil will
appear relatively dark/colder (Right Fig.).

Soil moisture trends detected from microwave

brightness temperature.
 The dielectric effect strongly influences
microwave radiation interactions with
the earth and atmosphere. Most gases
and dry land-based materials have a
weak dielectric effect, while wet soil,
moist vegetation, and water surfaces
have a strong effect. These traits aid
satellite monitoring of soil moisture
(e.g., Left Fig.).

12-hr composite of soil moisture measured by AMSR-E, 26 Oct 2005.

TRMM TMI and PR-derived products are
used to monitor flood potential in the
tropics. A combination of visible and IR
channels can be used to monitor
flooding. Right Figure shows the
flooding of the Zambeze River
(southeast Africa) between January and
February 2001.

Flooding of the Zambeze River (southeast Africa) detected from

a combination of visible and IR channels. In this type of image,
water is dark blue or black, plant-covered land is bright green,
bare or sparsely vegetated land is tan-pink, and clouds are pale
blue and white.
9.2 Vegetation
Various vegetation indices and satellite image
enhancements (e.g., Right Fig.) have been
developed to detect changes in vegetation
cover and levels of plant stress - information
that can aid in famine mitigation.
• The Leaf Area Index (LAI) corresponds to the
green leaf area. Values higher than 1
indicates multiple, overlapping layers of
leaves.
• The Fraction of Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (FPAR) measures how much
sunlight the leaves are absorbing.

(a) Detecting vegetation over southwest Asia using MODIS

false color imagery. Wet areas are in red and dry areas
appear in grey and brown, and
(b) (b) LAI and FPAR for Africa in December 2000.
9.3 Biomass Burning
Detection of biomass burning from satellite (Left Fig.) has become increasingly
sophisticated and has been used for tracing chemicals, forecasting aviation hazards,
and documenting deforestation. Satellite sensors also monitor burn scars (Fig. 2.48c)
as those areas can form caked surfaces through which water does not infiltrate
easily. The result is that when heavy rainfall occurs, most of the water remains on
the surface and causes flash floods.

a) Using NOAA near IR images to detect fires

and land surface changes in Brazil.
b) Numerous active fires (red spots) and
smoke in Central Africa from MODIS,
November 2000.
c) Burn scars and fire locations in Central
Africa. Shortwave, near IR, and visible
light are used to make the burned areas
stand out from unburned vegetation.
Deep red burn scars mingle with the
unburned bright green vegetation. Water
is dark blue, and naturally bare or sparsely
vegetated ground appears light
(sometimes pinkish) tan.
9.4 Land Use, Land Cover, and Other
Surface Changes at High Resolution
Surface-atmosphere feedbacks affect weather and climate. For example, urbanization affects weather by creating
convergence zones for thunderstorm initiation, and changes the regional energy balance and climate. High-resolution
land-use/land-cover data are especially critical to the performance of mesoscale models and boundary layer
turbulence models.
One of the sensors used to monitor land-use/land-cover is the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).44 SAR is suitable for
observing the surface because it uses microwave technology that is largely unaffected by clouds and time of day. SAR
works like other radars except that it has very fine resolution in the azimuthal direction. Finely resolved images are
normally achieved by using a large antenna to focus the transmitted and received energy into a sharp beam.
However, an antenna suitable for observing Earth's surface would be impractical. A large antenna can be synthesized
by combining signals from an object along a radar flight track and processing the signals as if obtained
simultaneously from a single large antenna. The distance over which the signals are collected is known as the
synthetic aperture.
SAR was first used on the NASA Seasat satellite in 1978.45 SARs on space shuttles produced high-resolution global
maps of topography, land use, and land surface changes (Next Fig.). SARs on current satellites include the Canadian
RADARSAT-1 and European Envisat Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR), and the Japanese Phased Array type
L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) whose properties are summarized in (Next Table ).
Images taken by the Spaceborne Imaging
Radar (SIR-C/X SAR) on the space shuttle
Endeavor. The region shown is 8 km x 40 km
in the vicinity of Manaus, Brazil, where the
Rio Negro and Rio Solimoes form the
Amazon River. Cyan colors identify the
dramatic decrease in the area of flooded
forest when the river levels fall. Grey areas
were unaffected by the seasonal floods.
 Summary of RADARSAT, Envisat-ASAR, and PALSAR properties

Synthetic Aperture Radars RADARSAT-1 Envisat-ASAR PALSAR

Year of launch 1995 2002 2006

Spectral band 5.3 GHz 5.33 GHz 1.27 GHz
Horizontal resolution 8 - 100 m 30 m - 1 km 7 - 100 m
Swath width 45 - 500 km 100 - 405 km 40 - 350 km
Full earth coverage 34 days 35 days 46 days

These satellite SARs can monitor land surface changes at a given location on
the timescale of weeks, which provides information about the impact of
river flooding, burn scars from biomass burning, and so on.
In addition to monitoring land surface changes, satellite SARs measurements of
the ocean surface have aided tropical cyclone science. Envisat-ASAR is sensitive
to surface roughness and can resolve surface heights down to sub-millimeter
scales- a useful capability as sea-surface height anomalies on the mm-cm scales
are associated with enhanced tropical cyclone ocean heat potential and intensity
changes.46 Satellite SAR observations of ocean surface circulations are also
useful for estimating surface wind velocity and identifying wind streaks in
tropical cyclones.47

Prior to SAR, high-resolution surface images were produced mainly by Landsat

sensors, which use visible plus reflected and thermal IR bands. Landsat images
cover hundreds of kilometers and resolve features on the order of 10s of meters.
Commercial and military reconnaissance satellites also produce high-resolution
surface images.
10 Monitoring Air Chemistry from Satellites
Surface monitoring of chemical pollutants is
non-existent in much of the tropics, where
biomass burning (for example, forest and
grassland fires) is the primary source of
tropospheric pollution. Satellite observations
are essential for understanding the complex
interactions of chemistry with weather, and
climate. Recent satellite missions have provided
new information on the sources, amounts, and
transport of ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), Average measured concentrations of CO at 700 hPa, 2-12
and other pollutants. Dec. 2004.
For example, the Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument on the
EOS Terra satellite detects CO from IR emissions and methane, and CO from reflected sunlight. Its
spatial resolution is 22 km. It is able to distinguish among sources of pollution. High levels of CO
have been recorded over central Africa, southeast Asia, and surrounding oceans48,49 (e.g.,Above
Fig.). Elevated levels of CO are produced when grassland, farmland, and forests are burned to
prepare land for agriculture.
The AURA satellite, launched in Aug. 2004,
has four instruments mainly observing the
upper troposphere, stratosphere, and
mesosphere. The Ozone Monitoring
Instrument (OMI) is the most valuable for
tropical pollution climate studies. It
Ozone concentrations (parts per billion) calculated from Aura satellite
continues 34 years of ozone monitoring data and the GEOS-Chem atmospheric model. Note the high values
that began with the downwind of biomass burning regions.
Backscatter Ultraviolet Detector (BUV) in 1970 and the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
(TOMS) in 1978. The OMI measures solar reflected and backscattered light in the ultraviolet and
visible parts of the spectrum (Page 5 Fig.). Those data are also used to estimate the amount of
UV reaching the surface, which helps forecasters decide when to warn the public about excessive
UV radiation.
The OMI will also map sulphur dioxide and, in combination with other instruments, monitor
tropospheric ozone and nitrogen dioxide. The Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES)
measures lower tropospheric pollution associated with air quality. By combining atmospheric
models with AURA satellite measurements of chemical pollutants, scientists are able to show the
link between biomass burning and regions of elevated ozone amounts (Above Fig.).
11 Remote Sensing of Volcanoes
Volcanic eruptions create numerous natural hazards50 and many of the world's active volcanoes
threaten population centers in the tropics. Wind-driven ash (tephra) threatens far larger areas
than any other volcanic hazard. Satellites are practical tools for monitoring the diffusion of ash
and other volcanic debris50 (Next Fig.), which pose a particular danger to aviation. Ash can also
aggregate into large particles that fall quickly and cause tremendous harm to life at the surface.
Volcanic ash clouds are commonly identified by an abnormal negative temperature difference
between the 11 and 12 µm IR channels, referred to as a "split-window" or "reverse absorption"
technique. In the resulting image, volcanic ash is distinguished from meteorological clouds (Next
Fig.b). This technique is standard and generally reliable for operational forecasting but it can
produce false alarms because ice-topped clouds have a similar IR temperature difference. In the
tropics, high water vapor content and the presence of large amounts of cloud ice makes the
technique less effective. Therefore, other techniques are applied. True color images, in which
visible and near IR channels are combined, can also detect ash (Next Fig. a). Some true color
images can be deceptive in that they identify denser, lower debris rather than the fine ash that is
dangerous for aviation.
 Explosive eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat
(Caribbean) observed by
(a) MODIS true color and

(b) Meteosat-8 IR temperature differencing.

Volcanic clouds contain gaseous pollutants and
silicate particles (ash), which scatter microwave
radiation. They can be tracked using radar51 and
satellite microwave sensors.52 Noxious gases from
eruptions are monitored not only by air chemistry
sensors, such as OMI and TOMS, but also by
geostationary satellites (Fig. 2.53). Since 2003, the
Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) has provided
images of volcanic sulphur dioxide and aerosols.
Distinctive thermal features of volcanoes are also
identified by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on
the NASA Terra satellite. Volcanic topography has
been measured in fine detail (1 m-100 m scale) by
synthetic aperture radars on aircraft, satellite, and
space shuttle missions.

Detection of (a) lava and (b) SO2 plume from the Karthala
eruption, Comorros Islands (southwest Indian Ocean) on 29
May 2006.
Focus 1: CloudSat
CloudSat,32 launched in 2006, carries the first satellite-based millimeter wavelength cloud radar. It is the world's most sensitive
cloud-profiling radar (Fig. 2F1.1), more than 1000 times more sensitive than current weather radars. It collects data about the
vertical structure of clouds, including the quantities of liquid water and ice, and how clouds affect the amount of sunlight and
terrestrial radiation that passes through the atmosphere. The poor representation of clouds and their impacts are sources of
error in climate models. CloudSat measurements should increase understanding of cloud processes and reduce errors in
prediction of both climate and weather.

Fig. 2F1.1. CloudSat profile through developing Tropical Storm

Ernesto.
CloudSat images are also providing valuable information on the vertical structure of
hurricanes (Fig. 2F1.2). From an IR perspective, Hurricane Gordon appears to be fairly
symmetric, but the CloudSat profile reveals a dramatic contrast between the weak northern
and strong southern parts of the eyewall. Ileana has stronger and symmetric eyewalls that
extend up to 16 km compared with the asymmetric and weaker convection in Gordon,
where the eyewall reaches only to 14 km. Comparing the profiles of Ileana and Gordon, we
see a tilted southern eye wall of Tropical Storm Gordon. When tropical cyclones are being
sheared aloft, they weaken, and the vertical structure of the clouds can indicate that
shearing. The CloudSat profile also shows the variations in the outer rainbands of Ileana.
The south side of the cyclone has a nearly continuous cloud while the north side has a gap
between the outer rainbands. From the cloud profile, we can distinguish between cirrus and
deep convective clouds, which cannot be done with images of cloud tops only.
Notwithstanding these examples, CloudSat rarely gets a pass right through the eye of a
tropical cyclone, and the latency of its products is 3-6 hours, so it is not useful for real-time
analysis of tropical cyclones.
Fig. 2F1.2. Geostationary satellite-IR and Cloudsat profiles of reflectivity of (a) Tropical Storm Gordon and, Red line marks the path
of the Cloudsat profile.
Fig. 2F1.2. Geostationary satellite-IR and Cloudsat profiles of reflectivity of (b) Hurricane Ileana. Red line marks the path of the
Cloudsat profile.
TRMM Precipitation Radar

TRMM Precipitation Radar (PR), launched in

1997, is the first space-based precipitation
radar.53 It has a spatial resolution of 4 km
horizontally, and 250 m vertically. The TRMM
PR starting swath of 220 km was increased to
247 km (Fig. 2F1.6) when the satellite was
boosted to a higher orbit in 2001.54 As an
active sensor, the TRMM-PR has superior
spatial resolution to the TMI, a passive
microwave sensor. After validation tests in
which the rainfall measurements of the PR
were found to be comparable with those of
ground-based radars55 (Fig. 2F1.7), the TRMM
PR has been used for several applications.
Fig. 2F1.4. Example of the TRMM PR swath within the TMI
swath.
Fig. 2F1.5. Kwajelein radar and PR monthly average rain
accumulation within 150 km of the Kwajalein radar for Jun -
Dec, 1999 and 2000 (Schumacher and Houze 200355).

The PR has provided more accurate information about

the amount and type of precipitation across the
tropics,55 the diurnal cycle of precipitation,56 tropical
cyclone structure and intensity (Fig. 2F1.6), precipitation
variability, cloud microphysics, the structure and
organization of mesoscale convection, and heat and Fig. 2F1.6. TRMM PR and TMI images of Tropical
moisture budgets. Cyclone Percy in the South Pacific. The PR profile
shows what is sometimes referred to as a "chimney"
or "hot tower" cloud in the eye wall.

Fig. 2F1.7. (top) Plan view of near-surface rain rates for
Hurricane Bonnie on 22 Aug 1998; (middle) vertical cross
section of rain rate profiles along the center of the satellite
track; (bottom) vertical cross section of latent heat profiles.
Distances across (top) and along satellite track are given in
km. (Adapted from Tao et al.57)
Latent heat, the heat released or absorbed
when water changes phase, is a critical
component of the global energy cycle. For
example, large quantities of latent heat are
released in hurricanes, especially in the
eyewall57 (Fig. 2F1.9).
Data from the PR have been used to more
accurately document the diurnal cycle of
rainfall,56 which is currently forecasted poorly
by models. Numerical prediction models,
including hurricane prediction models, have
shown improvements when data from the PR
are assimilated.58,59 New flood potential
products have been derived from PR and TMI
measurements.
Focus 2: JPSS, GPM, and Tropical Precipitation Estimates
Microwave sensors and radars on
various orbiting platforms provide
several views of tropical rainfall,
atmospheric humidity, and land and
ocean surface properties that help us to
understand tropical weather and
climate. More modern instruments on
the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)
and Global Precipitation Measurement
(GPM) missions provide greater
temporal coverage and advanced
sensors.
Fig. 2F2.1. The JPSS Three-Orbit System
The JPSS constellation will work in partnership with MetOp as
illustrated in Fig. 2F2.1. The JPSS primary mission areas are:
atmosphere, land, ocean, space environment, and climate. The
enhanced capabilities of JPSS systems include higher spatial
resolution, multi-spectral imagers, hyperspectral sounder, large
improvement in the timeliness of data availability (95% of
global data will be available within the half hour), and repeat
local coverage every four hours.
The current system of geostationary IR sensors, operational
polar-orbiting microwave sensors, and research microwave
instruments are being used to develop prototype blended
precipitation measurements. The frequently available (15-30
mins. or greater) geostationary IR is calibrated by
measurements from satellite microwave sensors and TRMM
radar. Precipitation products are being tested by NASA, NOAA,
and the US Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) (Fig. 2F2. 2).
Fig. 2F2.2. Experimental blended precipitation rain-rate products from NASA, NOAA Climate Prediction Center, US Naval Research
Lab, and NOAA NESDIS.
2F2.2 GPM

The Global Precipitation Mission

(GPM) expands on the TRMM mission
by providing coverage at higher
latitudes. It can measure rain rates
from 0.25 to 100 mm hr-1. GPM
orbits allow three-hourly revisits over
80% of the globe with the goal of
making data available to users within
three hours of observation time.

Fig. 2F2.3. GPM radar frequencies

The GPM consists of a core
satellite with dual-frequency
precipitation radar (Fig. 2F2.3)
and microwave instruments
and a constellation of polar-
orbiting satellites whose
precipitation estimates can be
calibrated against those of the
core satellite (Fig. 2F2. 4). Fig. 2F2.4. GPM core satellite and constellation.