Chapter 1:

Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 1 - 1
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 1 - 2
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 1 - 3
 Ductile and Brittle Materials

 For engineering Ductile materials typically

exhibit substantial plastic deformation with
high energy absorption before fracture.

 On the other hand, there is normally little or

no plastic deformation with low energy
absorption accompanying a brittle fracture.

Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behavior for brittle

and ductile materials loaded to fracture.

4
Chapter 1 -
 Fracture Profile

 Highly ductile fracture in which the specimen

necks down to a point.
 Moderately ductile fracture after some
necking.
 Brittle fracture without any plastic deformation.

 Figure a is found for extremely soft metals, such

as pure gold and lead at room temperature, and
other metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at
elevated temperatures. These highly ductile
materials neck down to a point fracture, showing
virtually 100% reduction in area.

 The most common type of tensile fracture profile

for ductile metals is that represented in Figure b,
where fracture is preceded by only a moderate
amount of necking.

5
Chapter 1 -
 Why Ductile Materials are Preferred

Ductile fracture is almost always preferred for two reasons.

 First, brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning;
this is a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation.

 On the other hand, for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation
gives warning that fracture is imminent, allowing preventive measures to be
taken.

 Second, more strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture.

Chapter 1 -
Stages in the Cup-and-Cone Fracture

 Initial necking.
 Small cavity formation
 Coalescence(union) of cavities to form a crack.
 Crack propagation.
 Final shear fracture at an angle elative to the tensile direction

Chapter 1 -
 Stages in the Cup-and-Cone Fracture

 First, after necking begins, small cavities, or microvoids, form in the interior of the cross section,
as indicated in Fig.b.

 Next, as deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come together, and coalesce to form
an elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction.

 The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel to its major axis by this microvoid coalescence
process (Fig.c).

 Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the outer perimeter of the neck
(Fig. d), by shear deformation at an angle of about 45O with the tensile axis—this is the angle at
which the shear stress is a maximum.

 Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic surface contour is termed a cup-and-cone fracture
because one of the mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the other like a cone. In this type of
fractured specimen (Fig. a), the central interior region of the surface has an irregular and fibrous
appearance, which is indicative of plastic deformation.

Chapter 1 -
 Fractographic Studies

The scanning electron microscope is preferred for fractographic examinations since it has
a much better resolution and depth of field than does the optical microscope; these
characteristics are necessary to reveal the topographical features of fracture surfaces.

(a) Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel.

Chapter 1 -
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter 1 - 10
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 1 - 11
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

Chapter 1 - 12
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

Chapter 1 - 13
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 1 - 14
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.) Chapter 1 - 15
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 1 - 16
 Poisson's ratio, n
eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=-
e e

metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
n < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 1 - 17
 Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 1 - 18
 Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 1 - 19
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 1 - 20

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = -n Fw o a=
L
EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 1 - 21
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 1 - 22
 Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 1 - 23
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 1 - 24
10
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter 1 - 25
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 1 - 26
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 1 - 27
 Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 1 - 28
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 1 - 29
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur =  sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 1 - 30
 Elastic Strain Recovery

sy i D

syo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery
Chapter 1 - 31
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 1 - 32
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 1 - 33
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 1 - 34
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress sT = F Ai sT = s1 + e 

• True strain eT = ln i  o  eT = ln1 + e 

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 1 - 35
 True Stress & Strain

• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

hardening exponent:
sT = K eT  
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 1 - 36
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n 
 
2 2
 xi - x 
– Standard Deviation s =  
 n -1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 1 - 37
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d /42
 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 1 - 38
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 1 - 39
 Exercise One
 A tensile test uses a test specimen that has a length of 50 mm and an area = 200 mm2. During the
test the specimen yields, under a load of 98,000 N, the corresponding length = 50.23 mm. This is
the 0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load = 168,000 N is reached at a gage length = 64.2 mm.
Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, and (c) tensile strength.

 Exercise Two
 In Exercise One, fracture occurs at a length of 67.3 mm. (a) Determine the percent elongation. (b)
If the specimen necked to an area = 92 mm2, determine the percent reduction in area.

 Exercise Three
 A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa. If the
deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation ? E of copper is 110 GPa

 Exercise Four
 A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of
10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm change in
diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic. Poisson’s ratio is 0.34, E = 97 GPa.

Chapter 1 -
 Exercise Five
 A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8 mm is tensile tested to
fracture and found to have an engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa. If its s
cross-sectional
f
diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm, determine the ductility in terms of percent reduction in area and
the true stress at fracture

 Exercise Six
 A tensile-testing apparatus is to be constructed that must withstand a maximum load of 220,000
N. the design calls for two cylindrical support posts, each of which is to support half of the
maximum load. Furthermore, plain-carbon (1045) steel ground and polished shafting rounds are
to be used; the minimum yield and tensile strengths of this alloy are 310 MPa and 565 MPa,
respectively. Specify a suitable diameter for these support posts.

 Exercise Seven
 In a Brinell hardness test, a 1500 kg load is pressed into a specimen using a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel ball. The resulting indentation has a diameter = 3.2 mm. Determine the Brinell
hardness number for the metal.

Chapter 1 -
 Extra Exercise 1
 A girl whose mass is 40 kg is using a swing set. The diameter
of the wire used for constructing the links of the chain is 5
mm. Determine the average normal stress in the links at the
bottom of the swing, assuming that the internal forces can be
neglected

 Extra Exercise 2
 In a tug of war, each person exerts a force of 200 N. if the
effective diameter of the rope is 5 mm, determine the axial
stress in the rope.

 Extra Exercise 3
 An 8-kg light shown in figure is hanging from the ceiling by
wires. If the tensile stress in the wires cannot exceed 50 MPa,
determine the minimum diameter of the wire, to the nearest
tenth of a millimeter.

Chapter 1 -
 Extra Exercise 4
 A 3 kg picture is hung using a wire of 3 mm diameter. What is the
average normal stress in the wires?

 Extra Exercise 5
 A hollow circular column supporting a building is attached to a metal
plate and bolted into the concrete foundation. The column outside
diameter is 100 mm and an inside diameter is 75 mm. the metal plate
dimensions are 200 mm x 200 mm x 10 mm. the load P is estimated at
800 kN. Determine the compressive stress in the column and the
average bearing stress between the metal plate and the concrete.

 Extra Exercise 6
 A column with the cross sectional in the third figure supports a building.
The column is attached to a metal plate and bolted into the concrete
foundation. The load P is estimated at 750 kN. The metal plate
dimensions are 300 mm x 300 mm x 20 mm. determine the
compressive stress in the column and the average bearing stress
between the metal plate and the concrete.

 Extra Exercise 7
 A 70 kg person is standing on a bathroom scale that has dimensions of
150 mm x 100 mm x 40 mm. determine the bearing stress between the
scale and the floor. Assume the weight of the scale is negligible. Then
presume the weight of the scale is 20 kg.

Chapter 1 -
A metal alloy has been tested in a tensile test with
the following results for the flow curve parameters:
strength coefficient = 620.5 MPa and strain-
hardening exponent = 0.26. The same metal is now
tested in a compression test in which the starting
height of the specimen = 62.5 mm and its diameter
= 25 mm. Assuming that the cross section increases
uniformly, determine the load required to compress
the specimen to a height of (a) 50 mm

Chapter 1 - 44