K.L.E.

Technological University,
Hubballi
Engineering Thermodynamics
By
Mahesh B. Gorawar

School of Mechanical Engineering

 Course Outcomes
1. Discuss the concepts of thermodynamics in the context of engineering
applications.
1. Assess the performance characteristics of heat engines, refrigerators and heat
pumps using the concept of quantity and quality of energy.

3. Evaluate irreversibilities of engineering devices to ascertain the efficiency/COP.

4. Determine the combustion parameters i.e., air–fuel ratio, percent theoretical air
and adiabatic flame temperature for combustion analysis.

5. Compare the thermal efficiencies of different gas power and vapour power cycles
through parametric analysis for optimum performance.
6. Estimate thermal efficiency and work as a function of pressures and temperatures
of heat engine cycles.
7. Estimate the work done by single stage and multi stage reciprocating air
compressor.
7. Evaluate the performance of a refrigeration system.
9. Investigate the effects of different engine parameters on cycle efficiency and mean
effective pressure through course project.
10. Demonstrate the knowledge about implications of energy conversion on the
environment as an assignment.
 Content Hrs
Unit - 1
Chapter No. 1. Introduction 5hrs
Basic concepts, Zeroth law, 1st law of thermodynamics applied to non flow system and flow system
Chapter No. 2. Second Law of Thermodynamics 10hrs
Devices converting heat to work; (a) in a thermodynamic cycle, (b) in a mechanical cycle. Thermal reservoir. Direct heat
engine; schematic representation and efficiency. Devices converting work to heat in a thermodynamic cycle; reversed
heat engine, schematic representation, coefficient of performance. Classical statements of second law of
thermodynamics, PMM I and PMM II, factors that make a process irreversible, reversible heat engines, Carnot cycle,
Carnot theorem, thermodynamic temperature scale. Entropy, a property of a system, Clausius theorem and Clausius
inequality, Principle of increase of entropy, calculation of entropy change during various processes, Tds relations, Exergy
and Aenergy, Exergy analysis
Unit - 2
Chapter No. 3. Gas and Vapour Power Cycles 09hrs
Gas power cycles: Otto, Diesel, Dual and Stirling cycles, expression for mean effective pressure and cycle efficiency,
comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles. Vapour power cycle: Carnot cycle, work done and cycle efficiency, draw
backs, ideal and actual Rankine cycle, network done, cycle efficiency and work ratio, regenerative cycle and reheat cycle
Chapter No. 4. Combustion thermodynamics 6hrs
Stoichiometric air for combustion of fuels, excess air, combustion equations, air - fuel ratio, combustion efficiency,
analysis of products of combustion, volumetric and gravimetric basis, enthalpy of formation, enthalpy and internal energy
of combustion, adiabatic flame temperature. Energy & Environment
Unit - 3
Chapter No. 5. Reciprocating air compressor 5hrs
Classification, work done in single stage and multi stage compressor, intercooling, efficiencies of air compressor,
condition for minimum work, numerical on single and multistage compressor.
Chapter No. 6. Refrigeration 5hrs
Vapour compression refrigeration system; description, analysis, refrigerating effect, capacity, power required, units of
refrigeration, COP. Refrigerants and their desirable propertie:s. Air cycle refrigeration; reversed Carnot cycle, reversed
Brayton cycle. Vapourabsorption refrigeration system. Steam jet refrigeration. Cryogenics and applications.
Psychrometry: Atmospheric air and psychometric properties; Dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, dew point
temperature; partial pressures, specific and relative humidities and the relation between the two. Enthalpy and adiabatic
saturation temperature
Course Code and Title: 15EMEC202 / Engineering Thermodynamics
Chapter Number and Title: 1. Introduction : 5hrs

Topic Learning Outcomes COs BL CA

Code
1. Use the concept of thermodynamic system, state of CO1 L1 1.2
system, path, thermodynamic process, thermodynamic cycle,
Quasistatic process, thermodynamic property and
thermodynamic equilibrium in analyzing and solving the
problems
2. Identify intensive and extensive properties CO1 L1 1.2

3. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics and explain why it CO1 L2 1.2

forms the basis of temperature measurement

4. Write 1st law of thermodynamics for a flow system and non CO1 L1 1.2
flow system
5. Modify 1st law for different applications of flow systems CO1 L2 1.2
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a basic engineering science,
which deals with heat and work transformations.

 It is the science of the relations between heat, Work and the

properties of the systems.
 It describes states and changes in state of physical systems.
 Describes micro/macroscopic properties of equilibrium
systems
 Entirely based on experimental results and observations
 Thermodynamics is build on 4 Laws and “simple” mathematics
 0th Law ⇒ deals with thermal equilibrium & relates equality of temperature (T)
 1st Law ⇒ pertains to the conservation of energy & introduce the concept of
internal Energy (U)
 2nd Law ⇒ relates the direction of heat flow & dictates the limits for conversion of
heat into work. It introduces the concept of Entropy (S)
 3rd Law ⇒ Gives Numerical Value to Entropy (defines absolute zero entropy)
These laws are UNIVERSALLY VALID, they cannot be circumvented
Thermodynamics is also considered as study of 3 E’s [energy, entropy and
equilibrium]
Carnot (1792-1832), Joule (1818-1889), Kelvin (1824-1907) and Clausius (1822-1888)
were the main scientists who developed and formularized thermodynamic as a
science in the nineteen century. Later Gibbs (1839-1903) expand it extent that its
principles could be applied to analyze almost any physical and chemical phenomena.
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
System: A quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
• Closed system (Control mass):A fixed
amount of mass, and no mass can cross
its boundary.
 Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass
flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a control

volume) with one inlet and
one exit.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Property: Any characteristic of a system.

Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
Extensive properties: Those whose
values depend on the size—or extent—
of the system.
Specific properties: Extensive properties
per unit mass.
Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
Thermal equilibrium [Equality of temp.]: If
the temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium [Equality of A system at two different states.
Pressure]: If there is no change in pressure
at any point of the system with time.
Chemical equilibrium[Equality of chemical
potential]: If the chemical composition of a
system does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.
Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system
which is simultaneously in a state of
thermal, mechanical and chemical
equilibrium is said to be in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium.
A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.
 State of Thermodynamic system
State of a thermodynamic system: It is the condition of
system at a specific time. The state of a system is defined by
specifying values of a set of measurable properties, which are
sufficient to determine all other properties. These values are
called as state variables/state parameters/ thermodynamic
variables.
In fluid flow systems, typical properties are pressure, volume
and temperature.
The complex systems may require additional properties. As an
example, the state of an electric battery requires the
specification of the amount of electric charge it contains.

State postulate is a term used in thermodynamics that defines

number of properties to a thermodynamic system in a state of
equilibrium. It allows a finite number of properties to be
specified in order to fully describe a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium.
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well
as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a manner
that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.
Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as coordinates
are very useful in visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature T, pressure P,
and volume V (or specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a
process for which a particular property
remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which
the pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process
during which the specific volume v remains
constant.
Cycle: A process during which the initial The P-V diagram of a compression
and final states are identical. process.
 Point and Path function of Thermodynamics

Point Function: They depend on the state only, and

not on how a system reaches that state. All
properties are point functions.
Process A: V2 - V1 = 3 m3
Process B: V2 - V1 = 3 m3

Ex. temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume,

entropy, internal energy. They are the properties of the
system.
Path function: Their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as
well as the end states. Work (W), heat (Q) are path functions.
Process A: WA = 10 kJ
Process b: WB = 7 kJ
Point function can be locate a point on graph (coordinates axes). Pont functions are
exact differentials.
Path function cannot be locate on graph (coordinates axes). Path functions are
inexact differentials.
Energy in transit are path functions and energy in storage are point functions (U).
Temperature is usually referred as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading
even if they are not in contact.
 Energy and forms of energy

Energy is a general term covering energy in transition and stored energy. It

can exist in various forms such as thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical,

nuclear……and sum these energy constitutes the total energy (E) of a

system. The thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total

energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy (U): The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms:
1. Work
2. Heat
 Energy transfer by heat
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving

Energy can cross the force for heat transfer. The larger the
boundaries of a closed system temperature difference, the higher is the
in the form of heat and work. rate of heat transfer.
Count Rumford: firstly noticed heat is a form of energy in 1798 AD
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions

Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per
unit time (kW)

Specifying the directions

of heat and work.
 The First law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a
sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and
energy interactions.
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed
system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system
and the details of the process.

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed; The increase in the energy of a
it can only potato in an oven is equal to the
change amount of heat transferred to it.
forms.
Application of first law of thermodynamics to non-flow or closed
system
Constant Volume process (V=C)

Constant Pressure process (P=C)

 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO NON-FLOW
OR CLOSED SYSTEM
Constant Temperature process (PV=C)

Adiabatic process
 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO FLOW OR
OPEN SYSTEM
A flow process constitutes an open system

The working substance enters and leaves the system. In addition there may
also be energy interactions in the form of heat and work, internal energy,
potential energy and kinetic energy
Flow energy or flow work =P x V
Flow is said to be steady when the fluid parameters at any point of the
control volume remain constant with time
Steady flow is characterized by no change in mass of fluid in control
volume, fluid is uniform in state, composition, and velocity, heat and work
interactions are constant, state of fluid is same at all times, no change in
chemical composition of fluid
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
 Applications of first law of thermodynamics in daily life

Apply the 1st law in Air-Conditioning equipment.

Commonly, a unitary AC has two parts: supply outlet and return grille. The
procedures for students doing the experiment are:
 Measure velocity, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature of the air flow at supply
outlet and the dimension of the outlet to get the air flow’s cross section area.
Measure dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature of the air flow at return grille.
 Calculate specific volume, enthalpy of air flow at supply outlet and return grille
from psychrometric chart.
Calculate the air mass flow rate and heat rate or cooling capacity of the AC using
the 1st law of Thermodynamics.
This simple experiment gives you an enjoy activity and it improves your motivation
to study.
 Applications of first law of thermodynamics in daily life
A bicycle pump provides a good example. when we pump on the handle rapidly, it
becomes hot due to mechanical work done on the gas, raising their by its internal
energy. one such simple arrangement is shown in figure.
It consist of a bicycle pump with a blocked outlet allows the air temperature to be
monitored. when piston is rapidly pushed, thermometer shows a temperature rise
due to increase of internal energy of the air. the push force does work on the air,
thereby, increasing its internal energy, which is shown, by the increase in
temperature in the air.
Energy Flow in a Diesel Engine
When an engine burns fuel it converts the energy stored in the fuel's chemical
bonds into useful mechanical work and into heat. Different types of fuel have
different amounts of energy, but in any given gallon or liter of fuel there is a set
amount of energy. For every 100 units of fuel energy that is burned in the engine
a hundred units of converted energy has to end up somewhere. It doesn't
disappear.
 Multiple choice questions

1. The gas constant (R) is equal to the __________ of two specific heats
a) product
b) sum
c) ratio
d) difference
2. A mixture of gas expands from 0.03 m3 to 0.06 m3 at a constant
pressure of 1 MPa and absorbs 84 kJ of heat during the process. The
change in internal energy of the mixture is
a) 54 kJ
b) 30 kJ
c) 84 kJ
d) 114 kJ
3. In an isothermal process
a) there is no change in internal energy
b) all of these
c) there is no change in temperature
d) there is no change in enthalpy
4. The measurement of a thermodynamic property known as temperature is
based on
a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
b) First law of thermodynamics
c) Second law of thermodynamics
d) none of these
5. The specific heat at constant volume is
a. the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
through one degree, at constant volume
b. the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
through one degree
c. any one of the above
d. the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
through one degree, at constant pressure
6. In free expansion process, work done is
a) Minimum
b) Maximum
c) Zero
d) Negative
7. Heat and work are
a) Transitory Energies
b) Intrinsic Energies
c) Extrinsic Energies
d) Internal Energies
8. Which among the following systems undergo/es work transfer?
a. Current flowing through the resistor
b. A shaft rotated by a motor
c. both a. and b.
d. none of the above
9 The sum of internal energy (U) and the product of pressure and volume
(p.v) is known as
a. enthalpy
b. workdone
c. none of these
d. entropy
10. A process, in which the temperature of the working substance remains
constant during its expansion or compression, is called
a. adiabatic process b. isothermal process c. polytropic process
d. hyperbolic process
11. A series of operations, which takes place in a certain order and
restore the initial conditions at the end, is known as
a) irreversible cycle
b) thermodynamic cycle
a) none of these
b) reversible cycle
12. Which of the following temperature scales doesn’t have
negative numbers?
a) Celsius
b) Kelvin
c) Reaumur
d) Fahrenheit
13. Which of two temperature change are equivalent?
(a) 1 K = 1 F
(b) 1 F = 1 C
(c) 1 Re = 1 F
(d) 1 K = 1 C
 Key answers
1. D
2. ?
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. C
7. A
8. A
9. A
10. B
11. B
12. B
13. D
Chapter 2: Second law of thermodynamics
Devices converting heat to work; (a) in a thermodynamic cycle, (b) in a
mechanical cycle. Thermal reservoir. Direct heat engine; schematic
representation and efficiency. Devices converting work to heat in a
thermodynamic cycle; reversed heat engine, schematic representation,
coefficient of performance. Classical statements of second law of
thermodynamics, PMM I and PMM II, factors that make a process irreversible,
reversible heat engines, Carnot cycle, Carnot theorem, thermodynamic
temperature scale. Entropy, a property of a system, Clausius theorem and
Clausius inequality, Principle of increase of entropy, calculation of entropy
change during various processes, Tds relations, Exergy and Aenergy, Exergy
analysis
 Topic Learning Outcomes COs BL CA
Code

1. Explain the limitations of 1st law of thermodynamics CO2 L2 1.4

2. Prove the equivalence of the two statements of the CO2 L2 1.4

second law of thermodynamics

3. Represent the Carnot cycle on P-V and T-S planes and CO2 L2 1.4
derive the expression for its efficiency

4. Differentiate between direct heat engine and CO2 L2 1.4

reversed heat engine
5. Solve numericals on the second law of CO2 L3 1.4
thermodynamics
6. Prove that entropy is a property of system CO3 L2 1.3

7. State and prove clausius inequality CO3 L2 1.3

8. Calculate entropy change during various CO3 L3 1.3

thermodynamic processes
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a
sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and
energy interactions.
Applications: …………
No process is known to have taken place in violation of first law of
thermodynamics.
However, satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually
take place
Limitations of first law of thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics is a general result that is thought to apply to
every process in nature which proceeds between equilibrium states. It tells us that
energy must be conserved in every process but it does not tell us whether any
process that conserves energy can actually occur.
 The first of thermodynamics does not place any restrictions on the directions of
flow of the energy.
 It does not specify to what extent one form of energy can be converted in to
another form of energy.
 Second law of thermodynamics
To express the second law in a workable form, we need the following definitions.
Thermal/ heat reservoir: It is a part of the environment, which can deliver the
heat energy or receive heat energy while its temperature is maintained a
constant.
Or. Thermal reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which
and from which finite amount of heat can be transferred without any change in
its temperature.

Source: It is a thermal reservoir, which is maintained at a constant high

temperature from which heat energy can be drawn, irrespective of the quantity
of the heat energy taken out, its temperature remains constant.
It is a high temperature reservoir from which heat is transferred….
Example: Furnace, sun, combustion chamber….

Sink: It is a thermal reservoir in to which the heat energy is dumped, irrespective

of the quantity of the heat energy dumped in to it, its temperature remain
constant.
A low temperature heat reservoir to which heat is transferred……
Examples: Atmosphere, ocean….
Work reservoir
A work reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to
which and from which finite amounts of work can be transferred
adiabatically without any change in its pressure.
Thermodynamic cycle
A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system undergoes a series of
processes and then returns to its original state, so that the properties of the system at
the end of the cycle are the same as at its beginning.
Thus, for whole numbers of cycles

Pf  Pi , Tf  Ti , u f  ui , v f  vi , etc.
Heat Engine/ Direct Engine : A device that converts heat into work while operating in
a cycle.
 They receive heat from a source.
 They converts part of this heat to work
 They reject the remaining heat to a sink
 They operate on a thermodynamic cycle
 TH
QH

Heat engine

QL
TL

Ex. IC Engines, Steam and Gas turbines …

The performance of Heat engines are measured in terms of thermal
efficiency
Thermal Energy : It is defined as the fraction of heat input that is converted to
net work output. It is a measure of the performance of a heat engine.

Desired Result
 th 
Required Input
Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
Qnet , in  Wnet , out  U
Wnet , out  Qnet , in
Wnet , out  Qin  Qout
Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
Q  Qout
 in
Qin
Q
 1  out
Qin
1. A steam power plant produces 50 MW of net work while burning fuel to
produce 150 MW of heat energy at the high temperature. Determine the
cycle thermal efficiency and the heat rejected by the cycle to the
surroundings.
2. A heat engine working with a thermal efficiency of 35 percent receives 2 kW of
heat from furnace. Determine the waste heat rejected from the engine.
3. A heat engine develops 10 kW power when receiving heat at the rate of 2250
kJ/min. Evaluate the corresponding rate of heat rejection from the engine and
its thermal efficiency.
 Reversed engine/ Heat Pump
A heat pump/ reversed engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a
thermodynamic cycle that removes heat from a low-temperature body and
delivers heat to a high-temperature body. To accomplish this energy transfer,
the heat pump receives external energy in the form of work from the
surroundings.
A reversed engine transports heat energy from a Sink (low temperature
reservoir (LTR)) to Source (High temperature reservoir (HTR)) by consuming
energy.

The name “heat pump” is the thermodynamic term used to describe a cyclic
device that allows the transfer of heat energy from a low temperature to a
higher temperature.

Refrigerator is a device that operates on a thermodynamic cycle and extracts

heat from a low-temperature medium.

The heat pump also operates on a thermodynamic cycle but rejects heat to the
high-temperature medium.
A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The building
is to be maintained at 21oC at all times.
Coefficient of Performance, COP
The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance, COP, the ratio of desired result to input. This measure of
performance may be larger than 1, and we want the COP to be as large as possible.
Desired Result
COP 
Required Input
 Now apply the first law to the cyclic refrigerator.
(QL  QH )  (0  Win )  U cycle  0
Win  Wnet , in  QH  QL
and the coefficient of performance becomes

QL
COPR 
QH  QL

For the device acting like a “heat pump,” the primary function of the device is the transfer of
heat to the high-temperature system. The coefficient of performance for a heat pump is
QH QH
COPHP  
Wnet , in QH  QL
Note, under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by

COPHP  COPR  1
4. A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The building
is to be maintained at 21oC at all times. The building is estimated to be losing
heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the outside temperature drops to -5oC.
Determine the minimum power required to drive the heat pump unit for this
outside temperature.
5. A refrigerator maintains the temperature of the freezer compartment at ‐5 C
when the air surrounding the refrigerator is at 22 °C. The rate of heat transfer
from the freezer compartment to the refrigerant (the working fluid) is 8000 kJ/h
and the power input required to operate the refrigerator is 3200 kJ/h.
Determine the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
6 . An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the
refrigerated space at 10-degree C. while operating in a room of 25-degree C.
temperature and has a cop of 8.5. How would you evaluate his claim as a patent
officer.
7. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at constant
temperature of 160 degree C and 20 degree C. the work output from the engine
is 15 kJ. Determine a) efficiency of the engine b) heat transfer to the engine c)
heat transfer from the engine. If the engine is reversed and operates as a heat
pump between the same two reservoirs, determine the COP of the heat pump
and the power required to drive the heat pump, if the heat transfer to the heat
pump from the low temperature reservoir is 300 kJ/min.
8. A reversible heat engine delivers 0.6 kW power and rejects heat energy to a
reservoir at 300 K at the rate of 24 kJ/min. Make calculation for the energy
efficiency and the temperature of the thermal reservoir supplying heat to the
engine.
Second law of thermodynamics was defined by classical statements:
1. Kelvin- Planck statement ---related to heat engine
2. Clausius statement -----relates to refrigerators or heat pump
1. Kelvin-Planck (K-P)statement of the second law
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that no
heat engine can produce a net amount of work while exchanging heat with a
single reservoir only. OR
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
In other words, the maximum possible efficiency is less than 100 percent.

 th < 100%
 Classical statements of second law of thermodynamics

• The Clausius Statement of the second law of thermodynamics, it is impossible to

construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the
transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
• Similar to the K-P Statement, it is a negative statement and has no proof, it is
based on experimental observations and has yet to be violated.
• Heat can not be transferred from low temperature to higher temperature unless
external work is supplied.

Therefore, it is impossible to build a TH

heat pump or a refrigerator without QH
external work input.
Heat pump
COP  
QL
TL
 Equivalence of the K-P and Clausius Statements

It can be shown that the violation of one statement leads to a violation of the
other statement, i.e. they are equivalent.
 Equivalence of the K-P and Clausius Statements

A violation of either the Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statements of the second law

implies a violation of the other. Assume that the heat engine shown in figure
violating the Kelvin-Planck statement by absorbing heat from a single reservoir
and producing an equal amount of work W. The output of the engine drives a
heat pump that transfers an amount of heat QL from the low-temperature
thermal reservoir and an amount of heat QH + QL to the high-temperature
thermal reservoir. The combination of the heat engine and refrigerator in the
left figure acts like a heat pump that transfers heat QL from the low-
temperature reservoir without any external energy input. This is a violation of
the Clausius statement of the second law.
 Classical statements of second law of thermodynamics

The two statements of the second law are equivalent. In other words, any device
violates the Kelvin‐Planck statement also violates the Clausius statement and vice
versa.
PMM1:
Any device /machines which will produce the energy by itself is called as
perpetual‐motion machine of the first kind (PMM1).

Any device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a
perpetual‐motion machine of the first kind (PMM1).
 Classical statements of second law of thermodynamics

Any device /machines which will absorb continuously heat energy from a single
thermal reservoir and will convert the absorbed heat energy completely in to work
energy is called as perpetual‐motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).

Any machine/ device that violates the second law is called a perpetual‐motion
machine of the second kind (PMM2).
PMM1 violates first law of thermodynamics and PMM2 violates second law of
thermodynamics. In practice PMM1 and PMM2 does not exist