High Voltage Engineering by DR Suhail Khokhar

High Voltage
Engineering
Dr Suhail Khokhar
Associate Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
QUEST Nawabshah
Chapter 3
Generation of High Voltage
High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 2

Need for High Voltage
 Commercially HV generators are applied in routine testing laboratories for
testing equipment such as: transformers, bushings, cables, capacitors and
switchgear.
 The tests confirm the efficiency and reliability of the products and therefore
the HV testing equipment is required to study the insulation behavior under
all conditions.
 The amplitudes and types of the test voltages are generally prescribed by
national or international standards or recommendations, and therefore
there is not much freedom in the selection of the HV testing equipment.
 Quite often, however, routine testing laboratories are also used for the
development of new products.
 Most of the HV generator circuits can be changed to increase the output
voltage levels, if the original circuit was properly designed.
Need for High Voltage
 Therefore, even the selection of routine testing equipment should always
consider a future extension of the testing capabilities.
 High AC voltage of 1MV or even more are required for testing power
apparatus rated for extra high transmission voltages (400kV system and
above).
 High impulse voltages are required testing purposes to simulate over

voltages that occur in power systems due to lighting or switching surges.
 Main concern of high voltages is for the insulation testing of various

components in power system for different types of voltages namely power
frequency, AC high frequency, switching or lightning impulses.

Classification of High Voltage
1. High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC)
2. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
3. High Impulse Voltage (Lightning & Switching)

HVAC Generation
The transmission and distribution networks are operating on AC voltages and
hence most of the testing equipment relate to HVAC.
Even though most of the equipment on the system are 3-phase systems, a
single-phase transformer operating at power frequency is the most
common from of HVAC testing equipment.
Test transformers normally used for the purpose have low power rating but high
voltage ratings.
The transformers are mainly used for short time tests on high voltage
equipment.
The currents required for these tests on various equipment are given below:
Insulators, C.B., bushings, Instrument transformers = 0.1– 0.5 A
Power transformers, h.v. capacitors. = 0.5–1 A
Cables = 1 A and above
HVAC Generation
 The design of a test transformer is similar to a potential transformer used for
the measurement of voltage and power in transmission lines.
 The flux density chosen is low so that it does not draw large magnetizing
current which would otherwise saturate the core and produce higher
harmonics.
 Methods of HVAC Generation

1. Cascaded Transformers
2. Series Resonant Circuits

1. HVAC by Cascaded Transformers

 The low voltage winding is connected to the primary of the first transformer, and
earthed.
 One end of the high voltage winding is also earthed through the tank.
 The high voltage end and a tapping near this end is taken out at the top of the
transformer through a bushing, and forms the primary of the second transformer.
 One end of this winding is connected to the tank of the second transformer to maintain
the tank at high voltage.
 The secondary of this transformer too has one end connected to the tank and at the
other end the next cascaded transformer is fed.
 This cascade arrangement can be continued further if a still higher voltage is required.
 Each transformer needs only to be insulated for 100 kV - relatively small.
 Purposely design to have a poor regulation - ensure that when the secondary of the
transformer is short circuited the current would not increase to too high a value and
reducing the cost.

1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage

2. Series Resonant Circuit
 The equivalent circuit of a transformer loaded by capacitors forms a series
resonant circuit, which is shown in Fig. 2.17 and will be used to introduce
the resonant circuits for testing purposes.
 The equivalent circuit of a single-stage test transformer along with its
capacitive load is shown in Fig. 2.17. Here 𝐿1 represents the inductance of
the voltage regulator and the transformer primary, 𝐿 the exciting inductance
of the transformer, 𝐿2 the inductance of the transformer secondary and C
the capacitance of the load.

2. Series Resonant Circuit
 Normally inductance 𝐿 is very large as compared to 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 and hence its
shunting effect can be neglected.
 Usually the load capacitance is variable and it is possible that for certain loading,
resonance may occur in the circuit suddenly and the current will then only be limited
by the resistance of the circuit and the voltage across the test specimen may go up
as high as 20 to 40 times the desired value.
 The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance C of the object will be
−𝑗𝑉𝑋𝐶 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝐶 = = 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
 Where R is the total series resistance of the circuit.

HVDC Generation
 Previously DC voltages have been mainly used for purely scientific research work.
 Industrial applications were mainly limited to testing cables with relatively large
capacitance, which take a very large current when tested with AC voltages, and in
testing insulations in which internal discharges may lead to degradation of the
insulation under testing conditions.
 In recent years, with the rapidly growing interest in HVDC transmission, an
increasing number of industrial laboratories are being equipped with sources for
producing DC high voltages.
 Because of the diversity in the application of DC high voltages, ranging from basic
physics experiments to industrial applications, the requirements on the output
voltage will vary accordingly.
 HVDC is required for insulation testing on cables and capacitors. It is used also as
impulse generator charging unit.

HVDC Generation
 The rectification of alternating currents is the most efficient means of
obtaining HVDC supplies.
 Although all circuits in use have been known for a long time, the cheap
production and availability of manifold solid state rectifiers has facilitated
the production and application of these circuits fundamentally.
 HVDC Generation Circuits are
1. Half-wave and Full wave Rectifier
2. Voltage Multiplier Circuits
3. Voltage Doubler Circuits

Half-wave Rectifier Circuit

 If the capacitor is not connected, pulsating DC voltage is obtained at the
output terminals whereas with the capacitance C, the pulsation at the output
terminal are reduced.
 Assuming the ideal transformer and small internal resistance of the diode
during conduction, the capacitor C is charged to the maximum voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
during conduction of the diode D.
 Assuming that there is no load connected, the DC voltage across
capacitance remains constant at 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 whereas the supply voltage
oscillates between ±𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 and during negative half cycle the potential of
point 𝐴 becomes −𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 and hence the diode must be rated for 2𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
 This would also be the case if the transformer is grounded at 𝐴 instead of 𝐵
as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). Such a circuit is known as voltage doubler due to
Villard for which the output voltage would be taken across D.
 This DC voltage, however, oscillates between zero and 2𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 and is
needed for the Cascade circuit.
 Half-wave rectifier circuits have been built up to voltages in the MV range, in
general by extending an existing HV testing transformer to a DC supply.
 The largest unit contains a 1.2 𝑀𝑉 cascaded transformer and 60𝑚𝐴
selenium-type solid state rectifiers with an overall reverse voltage of
3.4 𝑀𝑉 for the circuit.
 The voltage distribution of this rectifier, which is about 12𝑚 in length, is
controlled by sectionalized parallel capacitor units, which are small in
capacitance value in comparison with the smoothing capacitor 𝐶.
 The size of such circuits, however, would be unnecessarily large for pure
DC supplies.

Single-phase full-wave Rectifier Circuits
 Single-phase full-wave circuits can only be used for HV applications
if the HT winding of the transformer can be earthed at its midpoint and if the
DC output is single-ended grounded.
 More commonly used are single-phase voltage doublers, a circuit of which
is contained in the voltage multiplier or DC cascade. Although in such a
circuit grounding of the HV winding is also not possible, if asymmetrical DC
voltages are produced, the potential of this winding is fixed.
Therefore, there is no danger

due to transients followed by
voltage breakdowns.

Voltage Doubler Circuits
Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits produce a DC voltage less than
the AC maximum voltage.
When higher DC voltages are needed, a voltage doubler or cascaded rectifier
doubler circuits are used. The schematic diagram of voltage doublers are given
in Figs. 6.3b.

Voltage Multiplier (Cascaded Transformers)
A typical Voltage Multiplier circuit
is shown in Hg. 2.6.
Every transformer per stage
consists of an l.v. primary (1), h.v.
secondary (2), and l.v. tertiary
winding (3), the last of which
excites the primary winding of the
next upper stage.
Every h.v. winding feeds two half-
wave rectifiers.

Voltage Multiplier (Cockcroft-Walton)
 Cascaded voltage multiplier circuits for higher voltages are cumbersome
and require too many supply and isolating transformers.
 It is possible to generate HVDC from single supply transformers by
extending the simple voltage doubler circuits.
 This is simple and compact when the load current requirement is less than
1𝑚𝐴, such as for cathode ray tubes.
 Valve type pulse generators may be used instead of conventional AC
supply and the circuit becomes compact.

Voltage Multiplier (Cockcroft-Walton)
 Cascade generators of Cockcroft–
Walton type are used &
manufactured today worldwide.
 The DC voltages produced with this
circuit may range from some
10 𝑘𝑉 up to more than 2 𝑀𝑉, with
current ratings from some 10 µ𝐴 up
to some 100 𝑚𝐴.
 Supply frequencies of 50/
60 𝐻𝑧 are heavily limiting the
efficiency, and therefore higher
frequencies up to about
1000 𝐻𝑧 (produced by single-
phase alternators) or some
10 𝑘𝐻𝑧 (produced by electronic
circuits) are dominating.

Electrostatic or Van de Graaff Generator
 Electrostatic generators convert mechanical energy directly into electrical
energy.
 In contrast to electromagnetic energy conversion, however, electrical charges
are moved in this generator against the force of electrical fields, thus gaining
higher potential energies and consuming mechanical energy.
 Van de Graaff generators have been developed to produce very high voltages
of Mega-Volts with output currents of microamperes. They are useful for
energizing particle accelerators. The main advantages of these generators are
their ripple-free high DC voltages, which can easily be reached with precision
and flexibility.
 In Van de Graaff generator, the ions of either polarity produced by corona at
pointed electrodes are carried mechanically by a very highly insulating belt to
the top of the apparatus, where they are conducted to a voluminous high-
voltage terminal.
 As more and more charges accumulate, the generator voltage builds up as
high as millions of volts. It is limited only by the dielectric strength of the
terminal’s insulation to ground. Compressed gas and/or grading rings are
used to raise the output voltage of the generator. The output current is
limited to a few a microamperes.
 A modification of Van de Graaffs generator was made by Felici (1953) to
eliminate its mechanical shortcomings as regards the belt and its vibrations.
 In Felici’s generator, the belt is replaced by an insulating cylinder
surrounding a gas discharge chamber and rotating at a high speed.
 The chamber is subjected to a high DC field and ions of both polarities are
drawn from it by a pair of electrodes connected to the load. Such a source
can produce an output of a few hundred 𝑘𝑉𝑠 at a few 𝑚𝐴𝑠.


 Generation of HVDC is
linked with Van de Graaff,
who in 1931 succeeded
with the development of
electrostatic belt-driven
generators.
 These generators are in
common use today in
nuclear physics research
laboratories.
 Figure 2.8 demonstrates
the principle of operation.

Electrostatic or Van de Graaf Generator
 Charge is sprayed onto an insulating moving belt by means of corona
discharge points (or direct contact) which are at some 10 𝑘𝑉 from earth
potential.
 The belt, the width of which may vary widely (some 𝑐𝑚 up to 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠), is
driven at about 15– 30 𝑚/sec by means of a motor and the charge is
conveyed to the upper end where it is removed from the belt by discharging
points connected to the inside of an insulated metal electrode through which
the belt passes.
 The entire equipment is usually enclosed in an earthed metal tank filled with
insulating compressed gases of good performance such as air, mixtures of
𝑁2 – 𝐶𝑂2 , Freon 12 (𝐶𝐶𝑙2 , 𝐹2 ) or 𝑆𝐹6 .
 For simple applications the metal tank can be omitted, so that the insulation
is provided by atmospheric air only.

High Voltage Impulse Generation
 The disturbances of electric power transmission and distribution systems are
frequently caused by two kinds of transient voltages (Lightning and
Switching) whose amplitudes may greatly exceed the peak values of the
normal AC operating voltage.
 An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, without appreciable
oscillations, rises rapidly to a maximum value and falls more or less rapidly
to zero.
 If an impulse voltage develops without causing flashover or puncture, it is
called a full impulse voltage.
 If flashover or puncture occur, thus causing a sudden collapse of the impulse
voltage, it is called a chopped impulse voltage.

High Voltage Impulse Generation
Lightning overvoltage waveform can be represented as double exponential
waves defined by the equation
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 [𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 ]
Where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are constants of microseconds values. This equation
represents a unidirectional wave which usually has a rapid rise to the peak
value and slowly falls to zero value.

Impulse voltage generator circuits
1. Single-Stage Impulse Voltage Generator

2. Multi-Stage Impulse Voltage Generator

Single-Stage Impulse generator

 Two basic circuits for single-stage impulse generators are shown in Fig.
2.25.
 The capacitor 𝐶1 is slowly charged from a DC source until the spark gap G
breaks down. This spark gap acts as a voltage-limiting and voltage-sensitive
switch, whose ignition time (time to voltage breakdown) is very short in
comparison to 𝑇1 . As such single-stage generators may be used for
charging voltages from some 𝑘𝑉 up to about 1 𝑀𝑉, the sphere gaps will
offer proper operating conditions.
 An economic limit of the charging voltage 𝑉0 is, however, a value of about
200 to 250 𝑘𝑉, as too large diameters of the spheres would otherwise be
required to avoid excessive inhomogeneous field distributions between the
spheres.
 The resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and the capacitance 𝐶2 form the wave shaping
network.

 𝑅1 will primarily damp the circuit and control the front time 𝑇1 . 𝑅2 will
discharge the capacitors and therefore essentially control the wavetail.
 The capacitance 𝐶2 represents the full load, i.e. the object under test as
well as all other capacitive elements which are in parallel to the test object
(measuring devices; additional load capacitor to avoid large variations of
𝑇1 /𝑇2 , if the test objects are changed).
 No inductances are assumed so far, and are neglected in the first
fundamental analysis, which is also necessary to understand multistage
generators.
 In general this approximation is permissible, as the inductance of all circuit
elements has to be kept as low as possible.

Single-Stage Impulse voltage generator circuits

Multi-Stage Impulse generator
 The following difficulties encountered with spark gaps for the switching of
very high voltages, make the single-stage circuit inconvenient for higher
voltages.
1. the increase of the physical size of the circuit elements,
2. the efforts necessary in obtaining high DC voltages to charge 𝐶1 and,
3. last but not least, the difficulties of suppressing corona discharges from
the structure and leads during the charging period.
 In order to overcome these difficulties, Marx 1923 suggested an
arrangement where a number of condensers are charged in parallel
through high ohmic resistances and then discharged in series through
spark gaps.
 There are many different, although always similar, multistage circuits in
use.
 To demonstrate the principle of

operation, a typical circuit is
presented in Fig. 2.29 which
shows the connections of a six-
stage generator.
 The DC voltage charges the
equal stage capacitors 𝐶1 ′ in
parallel through the high value
charging resistors 𝑅0 as well as
through the discharge (and also
charging) resistances 𝑅02 ,
which are much smaller than
the resistors 𝑅0 and are
comparable with 𝑅2 .
 At the end of the relatively long charging period (typically several seconds
up to 1 minute), the points 𝐴, 𝐵, . . . , 𝐹 will be at the potential of the DC
source, e.g. 𝑉 with respect to earth, and the points 𝐺, 𝐻, . . . , 𝑁 will remain
at the earth potential, as the voltage drop during charging across the
resistors 𝑅20 is negligible.
 The discharge or firing of the generator is initiated by the breakdown of the
lowest gap 𝐺1 which is followed by a nearly simultaneous breakdown of all
the remaining gaps.
 According to the traditional theory, which does not take into account the
stray capacitances indicated by the dotted lines, this rapid breakdown would
be caused by high overvoltages across the second and further gaps: when
the first gap fires, the potential at point A changes rapidly from V to zero,
and thus the point H increases its potential to CV.

 As the point B still would remain at the charging potential, 𝑉, thus a voltage
of 2𝑉 would appear across 𝐺2 . This high overvoltage would therefore
cause this gap to break down and the potential at point 𝐼 would rise to 𝐶2 𝑉,
creating a potential difference of 3𝑉 across gap 𝐺3 , if again the potential at
point C would remain at the charging potential.
 This traditional interpretation, however, is wrong, since the potentials B and
C can – neglecting stray capacitances – also follow the adjacent potentials
of the points A and B, as the resistors 𝑅0 are between.
 This circuit will give an output voltage with a polarity opposite to that of the
charging voltage.


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High Voltage

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 2

 High impulse voltages are required testing purposes to simulate over

 Main concern of high voltages is for the insulation testing of various

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High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 5

 Methods of HVAC Generation

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1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage

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 Where R is the total series resistance of the circuit.

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Therefore, there is no danger

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1. Single-Stage Impulse Voltage Generator

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 To demonstrate the principle of

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