Lecture on Introduction

to Forensic Science

By
Dr. Ruby L. Tamayo
1-6: What are the Golden Rules in the practice of
Forensic Chemistry
7- 10: Reasons why evidence or specimen becomes
inadmissible in court
11 – 13 : Branches of Ballistics
14 – 20: Uses of Photography in Police works or
criminal investigations
21 – 25: In using photography in identifying subjects,
what are the shots to be taken
Forensic Chemistry is defined
as that branch of chemistry that
deals with the application of chemical
principles in the solution of problems
that arise in connection with the
administration of justice.
It is chemistry applied to the
elucidation of legal problems.
 Scope of Forensic
Chemistry
Forensic Chemistry embraces a large
and diversified field.
It includes not only the chemical side
of criminal investigation with which
it is generally associated with the
public mind but also the analysis of
any material the quality of which
may give rise to legal proceedings.
Scientific Evidence

The investigator is a fact-finder,

but he must know the laws
concerning the nature of his
activities.
He should procure evidence in
such a way that the findings can be
admitted in court and remain
impregnable to any attack by the
opposing counsel.
Witness

A witness in court maybe an

ORDINARY or EXPERT WITNESS.

As ordinary witness, the Rules of Court requires that the

person must have the following qualifications:

1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.

2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be
imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by
the law.
Difference Between the
Ordinary and Expert
Witness

1. An ordinary witness can only state

what his senses have perceived
while an expert witness may state
what he has perceived and also
give his opinion, deduction, or
conclusion to his perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be
skilled on the line he is testifying
while an expert witness must be
skilled in the art, science or trade
he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on
things or facts he has not perceived
except those provided for by the law
while an expert witness may state on
things, which he has not perceived or
seen by giving his opinions, deductions or
conclusions on the statement of facts.
 Probative Value of an
Expert Testimony
1. The degree of learning of the
witness
2. The basis and logic of his
conclusions
3. The other proof of the case
Stages of the work of
Forensic Chemist:
1. Collection or reception of the
specimen to be examined.
2. The actual examination of the
specimen
3. Communication of the results
of the examination
4. Court Appearance
Principles in the
collection of specimen:
1. Sufficiency of samples
2. Standard for comparison
3. Maintenance of individuality
4. Labeling and sealing
Six Golden Rules in the
Practice of Forensic
Chemistry
1. Go slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take notes
4. Consult others
5. Use imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories
Primary reasons that may
contribute to the disaster of
evidence

1. Improper packing of the specimen

2. Failure to identify the specimen
3. Improper precautions used in
transmitting the specimen
4. Improper preservation
5. Lack of precaution to prevent
tampering of the specimen
Principles to be observed
in handling all types of
physical evidence:

1. The evidence should reach the

laboratory as much as possible
in the same condition as when
it was found.
2. The quantity of specimen
should be adequate. Even with
the best available equipment,
good results cannot be obtained
from insufficient specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard
specimen for comparison
purposes.
4. Keep each specimen separate
from others so there will be no
intermingling of known and
unknown material. Wrap and
seal in individual packages
when necessary.
5. Mark or label each piece of
evidence for positive
identification as the evidence
taken from a particular location
in connection with the crime
under investigation.
6. The chain of custody of
evidence must be maintained .
Account for the evidence from
the time it is collected until it is
produced in court.
Any break in this chain of
custody may make the material
inadmissible as evidence in
court.
Questions??
Importance of the Study
of Blood
1. As circumstantial or
corroborative evidence against
or in favor of the perpetrator of
the crime.
2. For disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of
death and the length of time
the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction
of escape of the victim or the
assailant.
5. Determination of the origin of
the flow of the blood.
6. Determination of the
approximate time the crime was
committed.
Blood and Blood Stain

Blood – has been called the

circulating tissue of the body.
It is referred to as highly complex
mixture of cells, enzymes,
proteins and inorganic
substances.

Normal ph of blood is 7.35 to 7.45

Composition of Blood
45% formed elements or the solid materials
consisting chiefly of cells.
a. Red blood cells or ERYTHROCYTES –
contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to
various cells in the body.
b. White Blood cells or LEUKOCYTES – are
masses of nucleated protoplasm. It
defends the body from invading
microorganism. Help fight infections.
c. Blood Platelets or
THROMBOCYTES

Cells that are produced by the

bone marrow and are necessary
for proper clotting of blood.
Normally responsible for the
retraction of blood clot.
25 % Plasma – the fluid or portion of
blood where the cells are
suspended.

It is principally composed of:

a. Water – 90%
b. Solid – 10 % - largely protein in
nature and consists of albumen,
several globulins and fibrinogen
Albumen – the most abundant protein in
the blood. It binds with many drugs.

Globulins – has an important role in the

immune mechanism of the body. The
globulins carry drugs as well as sex
and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.

Fibrinogen – the soluble precursor of

fibrin , which forms blood clot.
Plasma – the yellowish fluids of
blood in which numerous blood
corpuscles are suspended. A
straw-yellow liquid formed when
blood to which an oxalate has
been added to prevent clotting.

Serum – a straw – yellow liquid

formed when clotted is allowed to
stand for sometime and the blood
contracts.
The Chronological Tests for
Blood

1. Preliminary Test
Determines whether the stains
contain blood or other
substance. It is used to
demonstrate the presence of
blood.
2. Confirmatory Test
Test use to show the positive
presence of blood and whether
blood of human or animal origin.
Precipitin Test
Determines whether the blood is
of human or non-human origin,
and if non-human, the specific
animal family from which it
originated.
Preliminary Test for
Blood
1. Benzidine Test – an extremely sensitive
test that can be applied to minute stain.
2. Phenolphthalein Test – alternative test for
benzidine.
3.Guaiacum Test – A fairly delicate test
showing the presence of fresh blood. It
may not react to very old stain
4. Leucomalachite Test – this test is not as
sensitive as the benzidine test
The Confirmatory Test
for Blood
The actual proof that the stain is
blood consists of establishing
the presence of the
characteristics of blood
pigment hemoglobin or one of
its derivatives.
Hemoglobin is the red coloring
matter of the red blood cells of
the blood.
The Three Confirmatory
Test for Blood
1. Microscopic Test
This is useful for the
demonstration and
measurement of corpuscles for
making the distinction
between mammalian , avian ,
piscine and reptilian blood.
2. The Microchemical Test
or Microcrystalline Test for
Blood
The three Microchemical and
Microcrystalline Test for Blood are:

1. Teichmann Haemin
Reaction/Teichman Test/ Haemin
Crystal Test
2. Acetone-Haemin Test
3. Haemochromogen Crystal Test or
Takayama Test
3. The Spectroscope
Test for Blood
The most delicate and reliable
test for the determination of the
presence of blood in both old
and recent stains.
This test is performed by means
of an optical instrument used as
spectroscope, an optical
instrument for forming and
examining spectra.
The Precipitin Test for
Blood
The precipitin test is the
standard test used to determine
whether the stain/blood is of
human or animal origin.
The precipitin test is very
sensitive and requires only a
small amount of blood for
testing.
The Blood Grouping test
of Fresh Blood
If the specimen is human blood
the next question is did it come
from the victim, the accused or
from other persons?
So the origin of the blood or
bloodstains will be determined
by the identification of the
blood groups to which it
belongs, in short to what blood
group it belongs?
Blood Antibodies/
Antigen/Agglutinogen Agglutinin in
Group on the RBC Serum

A A Anti-B

B B Anti-A

AB A and B Neither Anti-

A nor Anti-B
O Neither A nor B Anti A and
(none) Anti B
Identification of Blood Group
with Known Anti-Serum
(+) shows agglutination (-) shows absence of agglutination

Anti-A Serum Anti-B Serum Antigen Blood Group

+ + Present
Whole Blood Whole Blood
+ _ A A
_ + B B
+ + A and B AB
_ _ Neither A O
nor B
The Examination of Semen
and Seminal Stain
There are 4 examinations for seminal
stains or seminal fluid namely:
1. Physical examination
2. Chemical examination
a. Florence test
b. Barberio’s test
c. Acid Phosphates test
3. Microscopic examination
4. Biological examination