Hardware and Software

Hardware components
 Computer system hardware components include devices that
perform the functions of input, processing, data storage, and
output. To understand how these hardware devices work
together, consider an analogy from a paper-based office
environment. Imagine a one-room office occupied by a single
individual. The human (the central processing unit) organizes
and manipulates data. The person’s mind (primary storage)
and the desk occupied by a human (secondary storage) are
places to temporarily store data. Filing cabinets provide
additional data storage (secondary storage).
 In this analogy, the incoming and outgoing mail trays can be
understood as sources of new data (input) or as a place to
put the processed paperwork (output).
Hardware components
 The ability to process (organize and manipulate) data is
critical aspect of a computer system, in which processing is
accomplished by an interplay between one or more of the
central processing units and primary storage.
 Each Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of two primary
elements: arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit. The
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs mathematical
calculations and makes logical comparisons. The control unit
sequentially accesses program instructions, decode them,
and coordinates the flow of the data in and out of the ALU,
primary storage, and even secondary storage and various
output devices. Primary memory, which holds program
instructions and data, is closely associated with the CPU.
Computer System Components
Hardware Components in Action
 The execution of any machine-level instruction involves two
phases: the instruction phase and the execution phase.

 During the instruction phase, the following takes place:

Step 1: Fetch instruction. The instruction to be executed is
accessed from memory by the control unit.
Step 2: Decode instruction. The instruction is decoded so the
central processor can understand what is to be done, relevant
data is moved from memory, and the location of the next
instruction is identified.
Step 1 and 2 are called the instruction phase, and the time it
takes to perform this phase is called the Instruction time (I-
time).
Hardware Components in Action
 The second phase is the execution phase. During the
execution phase, the following steps are performed:
Step 3: Execute the instruction. The ALU does what it is
instructed to do. This could involve making either an arithmetic
or a logical comparison.
Step 4: Store results. The results are stored in memory.

Steps 3 and 4 are called execution phase. The time it takes to

complete the execution phase is called the execution time (E-
time). After both phases have been completed for one
instruction, they are again performed for the second
instruction, and so on. The instruction phase followed by the
execution phase is called machine cycle.
Processing and Memory:
Power, Speed and Capacity
 The components responsible for processing – CPU and
memory – are housed together in the same box or cabinet,
called the system unit. All other computer system devices,
such as monitor and keyboard, are linked either directly or
indirectly into the system unit housing.

 Processing Characteristics and Functions

Because efficient processing and timely output is important,
organizations use a variety of measures to gauge processing
speed. These measures include the time it takes to complete a
machine cycle, clock speed and others.
 Machine cycle time – the time it takes to execute the instruction
phase and the execution phase. Machine cycle time is one
measure of processing speed.

 Clock speed – a series of electronic pulses, produced at a

predetermined rate, that affect machine cycle time. The control
unit executes an instruction in accordance with the electronic
cycle, pulses of the CPU “clock.” Each instruction takes at least
the same amount of time as the interval between pulses. The
shorter the interval between pulses, the faster each instruction
can be executed. It is often measured in megahertz (MHz), or
million of cycles per second. The clock speed for personal
computers can range from 200 MHz to 700 MHz or more.

 Moore’s Law – a hypothesis that states that transistor densities

on a single chip will double every 18 months.
 Another substitute material for silicon chips is super
conductive metal.
 Superconductivity – is a property of certain metals that allows
current to flow with minimal electric resistance. Traditional
silicon chips create some electrical resistance that slows
processing. Chips built from less resistant superconductive
metals offer increases in processing speed.

 Memory Characteristics and Functions

Located physically to CPU ( to decrease access time),

memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for
program instructions and data. The chief feature of memory is
that it rapidly provides the data and instructions to the CPU.