Vapour-compression theoretical graphs

A-B, Isobaric Heat absorption in the evaporator

B-C, Isentropic compression in the compressor
(frictionless adiabatic compression in ideal cycle)
C-D, Isobaric Heat removal in condenser
D-A, Constant enthalpy expansion in expansion valve
Heat energy equivalent of work done = Heat energy
rejected- heat energy received
 Vapour-compression theoretical graphs

Coefficient of performance = heat energy received/ Heat

energy equivalent of work done
The coefficient of performance for freon is about 4.7
It should be noted that under cooling increases the heat
received by moving point A to the left increasing the
refrigerant effect
 The critical point

The critical point is the poiunt above which   the gas will not
liquify by the action of pressure alone.
This is an important temperature for refrigeration system
which rely on the change of state for heat transfer.
The gas will not liquify by cooling alone
p-h diagram (Mollier)
The system shown is

typical of that fitted on

many ships other than it

is more common to

have two low

temperature rooms

rather than one.

Cold rooms
Meat Room-Low temperature room typically working at
-17oC
Veg/ handling room-typically working at +4oC
Compressor
Generally of the single stage, reciprocating type. Larger
systems have multiple cylinders with an unloader system
using the suction pressure as its signal.
Refrigerant is compressed in the compressor to a
pressure dependent upon the temperature of the cooling
water to the condenser, and to a lesser extent the volume
of gas in the system.
As the temperature of the cooling water rises so does the
minimum temperature of the refrigerant liquid rise, and
with it the corresponding saturation pressure.
 Compressor safety devices
The compressor is protected by three safety switches;
The OP switch or Oil Differential Pressure switch compares
the measured lubricating oil pressure to the Suction
(crankcase) pressure. Should the differential pressure fall
below a pre-set minimum (about 1.2 bar) then the
compressor will trip and require a manual reset to restart.
A time delay is built into the circuit to allow sufficient time
for the lubricating oil pressure to build up when starting
before arming the circuit.
The HP or High Pressure switch, is fitted to the outlet of
the compressor before the isolating valve. On over
pressurisation (dependent on the refrigerant, up to about
24bar bar for R22) the switch will trip the compressor and
a manual reset is required before restart.
 Compressor control devices
This normally takes the form of an LP cut out pressure
switch with automatic reset on pressure rise. The cut out
set point is just above the LP trip point say at about
1.4bar. An adjustable differential is set to about 1.4bar to
give a cut in pressure of around 2.8 bar. The electrical
circuit is so arranged that even when the switch has
reset, if no room solenoid valves are open the compressor
will not start. This is to prevent the compressor cycling
due to a leaky solenoid valve.
In addition to this extra LP switches may be fitted which
operate between the extremes of the LP cut in and cut
out to operate compressor unloaders.
Some modern systems contain a rotary vane compressor
with variable speed (frequency changing) control
 The purpose of the oil seperator,
situated on the compressor
Oil Seperator discharge line, is to return oil
entrained in the gas, back to the
compressor sump.
The oil return may be float
controlled as shown, electric
solenoid controlled on a timer, or
uncontrolled with a small bore
capillary tube allowing
continuous return.
With all of these methods a shut
off valve is fitted between
separator and compressor to
allow for maintenance.
The oil gas mix enters the
separator where it is made to
change direction, the heavier oil
droplets tend to fall to the
bottom.
 Condenser1
Generally a water cooled tube cooler.
A safety valve and vent are fitted. The purpose of the
vent is to bleed off non-condensibles such as air which
can enter the system when the suction pressure is
allowed to fall below atmospheric or can be contained
within the top up gas.
The presence of non-condensibles is generally indicated
by a compressor discharge pressure considerably above
the saturation pressure of the refrigerant.
The coolant flow to the condenser is sometimes
temperature regulated to prevent too low a temperature
in the condenser which can effect plant efficiency due to
the reduction in pressure.
Below the condenser,Condenser2
or sometimes as a separate unit, is
the reservoir.
Its purpose is to allow accurate gauge of the level of
refrigerant in the system.
In addition to this it also allows a space for the
refrigerant liquid when the system is 'pumped down'.
This refers to the evacuation of the refrigerant gas to the
condenser to allow maintenance on the fridge system
without loss.
For system not fitted with a reservoir, a sight glass is
sometimes incorpotated on the side of the condenser.
Care should be given to ensuring that the liquid level is
not too high as this reduces the surface area of the
cooling pipes available for condensing the liquid and can
lead to increased discharge pressures.
 Sight Glass

Sight glass are often of the Bulls eye form.

This
Sight Glass allows the operator to ensure that it is only
Often of the Bulls eye form. This allows the operator to ensure that it is only liquid, and not a liquid/gas mix going to the
liquid, and not a liquid/gas mix going to the expansion
expansion valves. On some designs a water indicator is incorporated, this is a coloured ring in contact with the liquid, when water is
detected it changes colour, typically from pink to blue.

valves.
On some designs a water indicator is incorporated,
this is a coloured ring in contact with the liquid, when
water is detected it changes colour, typically from pink to
blue.
 Filter Drier
Can be either a compacted solid cartridge or bags of
dessicant. The main purpose of this unit is to remove the
moisture from the refrigerant.
Moisture cause two main problems.
Firstly it can freeze to ice in the evaporator and cause
blockage.
Secondly it can form acids by reaction with the freon
refrigerants. This acid attacks the copper in the lines and
deposits its in other parts of the system. This can become
particularly troublesome when it is deposited on the
compressor mechanical seal faces leading to damage and
leakage.
Fine particles which could possible block the expansion
valve are removed.
 Topping up the refrigerant
A filling connection is fitted in way off the filter dryer,
either directly onto it or on the inlet line after the inlet
shut off valve. This allows additional refrigerant to be
introduced into the system via the dryer element.
The normal procedure is to shut or partially shut the inlet
to the filter. The compressor is now sucking from the
system and delivering to the condenser where the gas
liquifies. The filter dryer is on the outlet from the
condenser therefore with its inlet valve shut the liquid
level begins to rise in the reservoir. As the only gas
entering the system is now coming from the top up line
the compressor will tend to reduce the suction side
pressure as it evacuates the system into the condenser.
The inlet valve can be briefly opened to allow more
refrigerant into the system.
 Thermostat and Solenoid Valve

These two elements form the main temperature control

of the cold rooms.
The Thermostat is set to the desired temperature and
given a 3 to 4 degree differential to prevent cycling.
When the temperature in the room reaches the pre-set
level the thermostat switch makes and the room
solenoid is energised allowing gas to the refrigerant
liquid to the expansion valve.
A manual over ride switch is fitted as well as a relay
operated isolating contact which shut the solenoid when
the defrost system is in use.
 System operation
Assume that the rooms are all warm and the compressor
is running with all the solenoid valves open supplying
refrigerant to the respective expansion valve and
evaporator.
Should one or two rooms be down to temperature the
solenoids closes thus reducing the volume of gas
returning to the compressor. The suction pressure drops
and the compressor unloads. If more rooms shut down
then the suction pressure will drop to cut out point and
the compressor will stop.
When the rooms warm the solenoids open again,
refrigerant passes back to the compressor, the suction
pressure rises and compressor starts. With more rooms
opening, the suction pressure increases and the
compressor loads up more cylinders.
Thermostatic The purpose of this valve is
to efficiently drop the
Expansion valve pressure of the refrigerant.
It achieves this by passing
the liquid through a variable
orifice giving a constant
enthalpy pressure drop.
The refrigerant at lower
pressure has a corresponding
lower boiling point
(saturation temperature).
Under cooling in the
condenser increases the
efficiency of the plant by
allowing more heat to be
absorbed during the
vapourisation process.
In addition it also reduces the
internal heat absorption
process that occurs during the
expansion stage which is due to
a small degree of flash off as
latent heat (of vaporisation) is
absorbed from surrounding
liquid to reduce the
temperature of the bulk liquid
to the new corresponding
saturation temperature for the
reduced pressure.
By this process of boiling
(vapouriation) and latent heat
absorption i.e. change of state,
the refrigerant removes heat
from the cold rooms.
Thermostatic
expansion valve The expansion process is
controlled by the action of
the bellows and push pins
acting on the orifice valve
plate.
The bellows is controlled by
a bulb which measures the
temperature of the gas at
outlet from the evaporator.
To ensure no liquid passes
through to the compressor,
the expansion valve is set
so that the gas at outlet
from the evaporator has 2
to 3 degrees of superheat.
Thermostatic For larger systems where a
significant pressure drop exists
expansion valve across the evaporator it is
necessary to fit a 'Balance line'.
This is a small bore tube which
feeds the outlet pressure back
to the thermostatic valve
'motor' element. Therefore the
For larger systems where a significant pressure drop exists across the evaporator it is necessary to fit a 'Balance line'. This is a

measured temperature
small bore tube which feeds the outlet pressure back to the thermostatic valve 'motor' element. Therefore the measured temperature is
directly related to the superheat temperature at outlet pressure. is
Some systems are designed so 5% liquid is available through the evaporator to coat the internal surfaces of the tubes
increasing heat transfer efficiency. directly related to the
superheat temperature at
outlet pressure.
Some systems are designed so
5% liquid is available through
the evaporator to coat the
internal surfaces of the tubes
increasing heat transfer
efficiency.
 Back pressure regulator valve
This valve is fitted to the higher temperature rooms,
vegetable and flour (+5oC) only and not to the Meat and
Fish rooms (-20oC).
They serve two main purposes.
Firstly when all solenoid valves are opened they act as
system balancing diverters, that is they restrict the liquid
flow to the rooms which can be kept at the higher
temperature and deliver the bulk to the colder rooms.
Secondly they serve to limit the pressure drop across the
expansion valve by giving a set minimum pressure in the
evaporator coil. This in turn limits the temperature of the
refrigerant thereby preventing delicate foodstuffs such as
vegetables from being damaged by having air at very low
temperatures blown over them. Ultimately they may also
be set to provide a safety limit to the room temperature
by restricting the pressure to give a corresponding
minimum saturation temperature of 0oC.
 In some installations there
is a tendency for oil to
Oil rectifier collect in the evaporator
under certain conditions
such as low load when the
speed of movement and
agitation of the
evaporating refrigerant are
Oil rectifier insufficient to keep the oil
moving. To prevent loss of
Oil rectifier

oil from the sump to the

system, an oil rectifier may
be fitted. The oil is
automatically bled from the
evaporator to a heat
exchanger in which liquid
refrigerant mixed with the
oil is vaporised.
 The heat for vaporising the
refrigerant is obtained by
Oil rectifier passing warm liquid freon from
the condenser, through the
heat exchanger. Vapour and oil
are passed to the compressor
where oil returns to the sump
while the freon passes to the
compressor suction. The
regulator is thermostatically
controlled valve which operates
in the same way as the
expansion valve on the main
system. It automatically bleeds
the oil from the evaporator so
that the gas leaves the heat
exchanger in a superheated
condition.
 Defrost system
Moisture freezes onto the evaporator eventually causing
a restriction and reducing the efficiency of the plant. This
must be periodically removed. For Veg and Flour rooms,
were not restricted to 0oC minimum by the back
pressure valve, this is carried out once per day. For the
Meat and Fish rooms this has to be carried out two or
more times. Due to the low temperature in the rooms it
is necessary to fit a drain heater.
When on defrost the solenoid valve is shut and the fan is
off. On some systems at end of defrost the solenoid
valve is opened momentarily before the fan is started.
This allows moisture to be snap frozen onto the surface
of the element, creating a rough increased surface area
and thereby increasing the heat transfer rate.
 Effects of under and over charge
The effects of overcharge are a full condenser/receiver
gauge glass. System pressures are not effected until
highly overcharged when a possibility of excessive HP
pressure exists.
Undercharge causes failure to maintain cold room
temperatures and compressor cycling. Compressor
cycling is caused by there being insufficient gas to
maintain the compressor loaded even with all room
solenoids open.
In extreme the compressor will cut in and out.
Undercharge is detected by low levels in the
condenser/receiver gauge glass/ bubbles in liquid sight
glass, compressor cycling and low suction pressures.
 Fridge compressor
Compressor bodies are normally
of close grained castings of iron or
steel. Modern valves are of the
reed or disc type mounted in the
head and are of high grade steel
on stainless steel seats with a
usual lift of about 2mm.
Connecting rods are aluminium
with steel backed white metal big
ends. The crankshaft is spheriodal
graphite iron.
The pistons are made from cast
iron in older units, and of
aluminium alloy more recently.
The piston is attached to the
crankshaft by con rod in the
normal manner.
 Fridge compressor

It should be noted that the

crankcase is full of refrigerant
gas at suction pressure.
Liners are made from high
tensile cast iron. Lubrication is
generally splash only for smaller
compressors with a crankshaft
driven gear pump supplying
bearings on larger machines.It is
important to understand that
actual pumped lube oil pressure
is the indicated pressure less this
crankcase pressure.
 Fridge compressor
The properties of the Lubricating
oil used in are compressors are
critical and specific to the
refrigerant gas used. The
properties of this oil will be dealt
with in the tribology section.
By the nature of the system a
possibility exists whereby liquid
may be passed to the compressor
suction. To prevent serious
damage, some form of unloading
device is normally fitted. In this
case the suction valve assembly is
held on the liner by a heavy gauge
spring. In the event of liquid
passing to the compressor the
suction valve will lift against this
spring.
 It should be noted that for this
design the carbon seal and flexible
Mechanical seal bellows is fixed in way of the
mounting plate and the hard
running surface is allowed to
rotate. This is the opposite to the
set up for seals mounted on
pumps. The finish of the running
surface of the seal is extremely fine.
However, in extenuating circumstances
i.e. when the surface has been damaged
say by the deposit of copper, it is
possible to lap the face of the carbon.
The method I would recommend is metal
polish such as brasso, on a true flat
surface on which is laid chart paper. The
chart paper absorbs the wear particles
as they are removed an a reasonable
finish is possible
 These compressors
are used mainly in
Rotary Compressor house hold
applications but
modern practice sees
there use in cargo
conditioning.
A variation on this is
the multi blade type
where the rotor has
slots cut in it, fitted to
which are spring
loaded blades.
Alternately the blades
may rely on
centrifugal force.
 With both these types ,
when the compressor is
Rotary Compressor stopped the sealing
pressure and oil film are
broken and there fore the
suction and discharge are
common. This reduces
starting loads but requires a
suction non return valve to
be fitted.
Where these are fitted to
large refrigeration systems
it is possible to use variable
speed thyristor controlled
electric motors. Thereby the
compressor can run at
optimal revolution to
maintain plant efficiency.
 Air conditioning
Air conditioning is the control of humidity, temperature,
cleanliness and air motion.
Winter conditioning relates to increasing temperature and
humidity whilst summer conditioning relates to
decreasing temperature and increasing humidity.
Specific humidity-Is the ratio of the mass of water vapour
to the mass of dry air in a given volume of mixture.
Per cent relative humidity-is the mass of water vapour per
m3 of air compared to the mass of water vapour per m3 of
saturated air at the same temperature.
This also equals the ratio of the partial pressure of actual
air compared to the partial pressure of the air if it was
saturates at the same temperature. i.e. m/mg = p/pg
 Partial pressure, Dalton's Laws

Barometer pressure = partial pressure of N2 + p.p.O2 +

p.p.H2O,

from Daltons Law viz:

Pressure exerted by, and the quantity of , the vapour
required to saturate a given space ( i.e. exist as saturated
steam ) at any given temperature, are the same whether that
space is filled by a gas or is a vacuum.
The pressure exerted by a mixture of a gas and a vapour, of
two vapours, or of two gasses, or a number of same, is the
sum of the pressure which each would exert if it occupied the
same space alone, assuming no interaction of constituents.
 Dew point1

When a mixture of dry air and water vapour has a

saturation temperature corresponding to the partial
pressure of the water vapour it is said to be saturated.
Any further reduction of temperature (at constant
pressure) will result in some vapour condensing.

This temperature is called the dew point, air at dew point

contains all the moisture it can hold at that temperature,
as the amount of water vapour varies in air then the
partial pressure varies, so the dew point varies
Dew point2
It can be seen that cooling
a superheated vapour at
constant pressure will
bring it to the saturated
vapour line, or Dew point.
It can also be seen that
cooling at constant
temperature raises the
partial pressure until the
dew point is reached.
Dew point3 Therefore from the above
equation for determining
the relative humidity,

%R.H. = m/mg x 100 = p/pg x

100

= pdew/pg point x 100

where g refers to the sat

condition. This means dry
air contains the maximum
moisture content (100%
R.H.) at the saturation
conditions.
 This chart is used for
finding the relative
Psychrometric chart humidity of air which
has been measured
using a 'wet and dry
bulb' thermometer. This
is a pair of
thermometers, one of
which has its bulb
wrapped in a damp
cloth.
The drier the air,the
greater the evaporation
of water off the cloth
and therefore the lower
the reading on the 'wet
bulb' thermometer.
Air conditioning system
Compressor used are may be reciprocating or rotary. In
nearly all cases a method of varying the quantity of
delivery is incorporated.
For reciprocating compressors this may take the form of
an unloader and for rotary variable speed drive.
Protection
The compressors have protection systems similar to their
fridge counterparts with High Pressure and Low Pressure
cut outs that require manual resets.
In addition to this an interlock is fitted so that the
compressor cannot be started if the air handling unit fan
is not running. Should the fan be stopped the compressor
will cut out.
An alternative to this is to fit solenoid valves before the
compressor, as in the diagram above, which open only
when the fan is running.
The compressor will trip on Low suction pressure.
The purpose of both these systems is to prevent liquid
returning to the compressor.
 Air Handling Unit
One or more is fitted. In the diagram above a single unit
contains two individual evaporators which are
independently supplied by a compressor. A belt driven fan
delivers air to the evaporators via a fine mesh air filter.
This filter is removed on a regular basis and washed in a
soapy solution containing disinfectant.
The air passes over the evaporator where it is cooled and
releases water vapor. The water condenses and is fed
away via a drip tray and pipe work, the water is quite
clean and can be used for domestic purposes after
treatment although this practice is not common. On the
above design a catcher has been fitted to remove water
droplets entrained in the air, these are not always fitted.
A perforated pipe is fitted after the evaporator allowing
low quality steam to be fed into the air improving its
humidity when too dry.
 Contamination of ships air
Contamination of ships air conditioning
systems by legionnella bacteria
Legionnaires disease is caused by bacteria
which flourishes in stagnant water or
sludge .
It can also be found in wet matrix filters,
which may be found in the ships filtration
system for the air conditioning plant
Main danger areas of air contamination are
Air inlet arrangements-This may be direct or
indirect from the air conditioning room via
jalousies, which, when incorrectly designed may
lead rain water onto the filters.
It may also be allowed to accumulate in the
space where drainage is not efficient
Filters-These filters made of a 25mm thick
synthetic material can trap water as well as
insects and soot and provide a rapid growth area
for the bacteria.

Regular washing is essential

Cooler unit (dehumidifier)-
Ineffective drainage can allow water to stagnate in the
catchment sumps. Also, where air velocities are high over
the block, air can become entrained and carry moisture
into the air stream. An efficient moisture eliminator is
required.
Humidifier-
Steam humidifiers, where fitted, do not appear to be a
problem.
However, adiabatic humidifiers of which the water spray
type appears to offer a special hazard.
The enclosed tank and matrix elements provide an ideal
breeding ground for the bacteria which may then be
carried into the air stream when sprayed.
Plenum Insualtion-Where the PVC GRP facing of the rock
wool insulation and sound deadening breaks down the
considerable levels of water may be present.
Recommended countermeasures.
Filters-Should be washed in 50ppm solution on a regular
basis
Coolers-Special attention to drainage arrangements as
well as super chlorinating the condensate sump every
3months.
Plenum insulation-Insulation to be examined at refit and
damaged areas resealed
 Refrigerants

Desirable properties of a refrigerant

1. Low boiling point (otherwise operation at high vacua becomes
a necessity)
2. Low condensing pressure (to avoid heavy machine plant
scantling and reduce the leakage risk)
3. High specific enthalpy of vaporisation ( to reduce the quatity of
refrigerants in circulation and lower machine speeds, sizes
etc.)
4. Low specific volume in vapour state (reduces size and
increases efficiency)
5.High critical temperature (temperature above which vapour
cannot be condensed by isothermal compression)
6.Non corrosive and non solvent (pure and mixed)
7.Stable under working conditions
8.Non flammable and non explosive
9. No action with oil ( the fact that most refrigerants are
miscible may be advantageous e.e. the removal of oil
films, lowering pour points etc, provided separators are
fitted
10.Easy leak detect
11.Non toxic
12.cheap, easily stored and obtained
The production of R12 and R11 has now stopped under
the Montreal Protocol and EU regulation on ozone
depleting gasses. A short term solution has been
conversion to HCFC's such as R22 (HCFC's have an Ozone
Depletion Rate {ODP} 2-15% of CFC's) but this
refrigerant also has a harmful effect on the environment,
although far less damaging than R12. HCFC's are also
targeted for eventual production phase out as controlled
substances, with usage totally banned by the EU in new
equipment rated at 150kW and over from the 1st Jan
2000. In some countries such as Germany and Sweden
tighter restrictions are in force.
New refrigerants such as R134a and R404A, which are
HFC's may offer a longer term solution against harmful
emissions.
They contain no chlorine atoms and thus do not attack
the ozone layer but they are greenhouse gasses and may
be subject to future legislation.
An uncertainty over the long term future of HFC's has led
to growing interest in old natural refrigerants such as
ammonia and carbon dioxide or hydrocarbons such as
propane and iso-butane.
Using the refrigerants, however, dictates more stringent
safety measures which are being drafted by the
appropriate classification societies.
The naming of freon (or Actron) refrigerants comes from the
constituents.

For R12, formed by reacting methane with flourine and chlorine. This forms a molecule
containing 1 carbon atom, 2 flourine atoms and 2 chlorine atoms

Number of Carbon atoms number of hydrogen atoms number of flourine

minus 1 plus one atoms

0 (1-1) 1 (0+1) 2

For R22, again formed by reacting methane with flourine and chlorine. This forms a molecule
containing 1 carbon atom, 1 hydrogen atom and 2 chlorine atom

0 2 2

the remaining bonds are taken by chlorine atoms

 Refrigerant 12
R12 is halogenated hydrocarbon derived from
methane (CH4) with the hydrogen being displaced by
chlorine and fluorine. The resulting compound is
Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) also known as Freon
12
R12 is considered non-toxic except in high
concentration producing oxygen deficiency. However on
contact with flame it breaks down to form chlorine gas
and phosgene (COCl2).
R12 escaping under pressure can cause skin
damage on contact. It is non-irritant and not considered
flammable.
Working pressures and temperatures are moderate
and the high critical temperature (112oC) is well above
the working range