VOLCANOES AND MOUNTAINS

ENGR. SYMON ALLAN A. CASUGA

• 1,500 active volcanoes
worldwide
− a third have records of − 500 million people live
near active volcanoes
previous eruptions
− Fewer than 200 volcanoes
− 2 or 3 eruptions per have instruments to
decade are major assess potential for
disasters eruption
Magma Viscosity

• Escaping gases drive volcanic eruptions

• How easily gases escape from magma is
controlled by magma viscosity
− Magma – molten rock below the surface
− Lava – molten rock at the surface

• Viscosity = resistance to flow

− Viscosity depends upon temperature and
magma composition
− Magma composition varies with plate tectonic
setting
Magma Viscosity
Viscosity = resistance to flow

− Viscosity of materials decreases with increasing temperature

− Viscosity varies with composition
Magma Viscosity

Escaping volcanic gases drive eruptions

• Gases are dissolved in magma
− Water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide

• Pressure on magma decreases as magma rises

toward surface
• Gases are released as pressure decreases
− Carbonated drink analogy
 Concept Question

How would the viscosity of motor oil in your car’s

engine change from the time you turn the key in
the ignition to when you have driven 50 km (30
miles)?

A. Viscosity would increase

B. Viscosity would decrease
C. Viscosity would stay the same
Magma Viscosity

Viscosity depends upon magma composition

(silica content)

• Silica is combination of oxygen and silicon that

combines with other elements (e.g., sodium,
potassium) to form minerals
− Elements combine to form simple structures in minerals
with less silica = low viscosity
− Elements combine to form more complex structures in
minerals with more silica = high viscosity
Magma Viscosity

Viscosity depends upon magma composition

(silica content)
 Concept Question

Which type magma most likely has the

lowest viscosity?

A. High silica, high temperature

B. High silica content, low temperature
C. Low silica content, high temperature
D. Low silica content, low temperature
Magma Viscosity

More viscosity = More

violent eruptions
• Gases escape easily
during mild eruptions
with low viscosity
magma, e.g., Hawaii
• Gases escape
explosively from high
viscosity magma, e.g.,
Alaska
 Mild or violent eruption?
 Concept Question

Viscosity depends upon magma composition

(silica content)

Q: Why does silica content vary?

A: Silica content controlled by magma

source (plate tectonics)
• Most active
volcanoes (top)
found near
convergent plate
boundaries
(bottom)
− Others
associated with
divergent
boundaries
(Iceland, East
Africa) or form
above hot spots
(Hawaii)
Magma Sources and Magma Composition
Different plate settings generate magma
from melting different source rocks

1. Basaltic magma –
partial melting parts
of asthenosphere
below oceanic ridge
or hot spots
− also at 2
continental 1
divergent
boundary and hot
spot

2. Rhyolitic magma -
melting of parts of
continental crust
Magma Sources and Magma Composition
Different plate settings yield different magmas from
different source rocks

Divergent Boundary
Oceanic Ridge
Basaltic magma

Oceanic Hot spot

Basaltic magma
Divergent Boundary
Continental Rift
Basaltic & Rhyolitic
magma
Magma Sources and Magma Composition
Different plate settings generate magma
from melting different source rocks

3. Andesitic magma
– partial melting of
mantle rocks (with
water) at
subduction zone

3
Magma Sources and Magma Composition
Different plate settings yield different magmas from
different source rocks

Convergent Boundary
Oceanic Trench/
Subduction Zone
Andesitic magma
Convergent Boundary
Oceanic Trench/
Subduction Zone
Andesitic magma
 Magma Sources and Magma Composition

Silica content is controlled by partial melting of

rocks at magma source

• Partial melting occurs when some minerals in a rock

melt while others remain solid
− Minerals with lowest melting temperatures will melt first
− Silica-rich minerals have lowest melting temperatures
• Partial melting generates a more silica-rich magma
than the parent rock
 Magma Sources and Magma Composition

Three types of magma defined by silica content

Partial Melting Of Asthenosphere/Mantle wedge/Continental crust

. . . generates Basaltic/Andesitic/Rhyolitic magma with

. . . Low/Intermediate/High silica content

Different magma types form in different plate tectonic

settings
Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

Three types of volcanoes

• Shield, stratovolcanoes, cinder cone
• Composed of different materials
• Volcano type and eruption style varies with plate setting
• Different sizes (note size of trees on volcano slopes)

Shield volcano Stratovolcano Cinder cone volcano

Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
Shield volcanoes (e.g., Hawaiian Islands)
• Broad, gentle slopes
• Built from many low viscosity lava flows (basalt)
• Relatively mild eruptions associated with hot spots, divergent
plate boundaries
Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
Stratovolcanoes (e.g., Osorno, Chile)
• Most common volcano type
• Steeper slopes built from alternating layers of tephra and
medium viscosity lava (andesite)
• Form on plates overriding subduction zones at convergent plate
boundaries
Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
Other Volcanic Landforms - Caldera
• Giant crater formed from collapse of volcano into
underlying magma chamber
• e.g., Yellowstone, Wyoming

Caldera formed from

collapse of previous
volcano

Crater of Karymsky
volcano
Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
Geysers, Hot Springs, Fumeroles, Mud Volcanoes
• Form when water circulates near magma chamber
− Geyser – water heated under pressure with volcanic gases
− Hot spring – heated groundwater rises to surface
− Mud volcano – chemical reactions convert rock to clay
− Fumerole – volcanic gases escape in absence of water

Geyser Hot Spring Mud volcano Fumerole

Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
Plutonic landforms
Batholith / Stock – a large reservoir of magma that cools to form a large
mass
Sill – magma along a mostly horizontal contact between adjacent layers of
rocks
Dike – thin vein of magma that solidified through a near-vertical fracture
Laccolith - typically lens-shaped, that has been intruded between rock
strata causing uplift in the shape of a dome.
Products of Volcanic Eruptions

Major products of volcanic eruptions:

• Airborne – lateral blast, tephra, volcanic gases
• Flows on land – lava, pyroclastic flows, lahars
Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Airborne Eruption Products

• Rare lateral blasts

can destroy objects
up to 12 km away
and knock down
trees more than 25
km distant
− Effect of lateral
blast only seen on
North flank of
Mount St. Helens
Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Airborne Eruption Products
• Tephra represents particles blasted into air by eruption
− Volcanic bombs and ash are found near and far from eruption
source, respectively

Blobs of magma
solidify to form lava
bombs

Wind can transport fine

volcanic ash for hundreds
of kilometers downwind
Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Airborne Eruption Products
• Tephra represents
particles blasted into
air by eruption
− Volcanic ash
(particles of <2 mm
diameter)
− Measurable ash
deposits found
hundreds of km
from volcano
− Compare Mt. St.
Helens ash fall to
the Yellowstone
super-eruption
640,000 years ago.
Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Eruption Products on Land
• Low viscosity lava can
flow up to 50 km from its
source
− Lava transported to
front of lava flows in
long lava tubes
− Lava flows build up in
a series of layers

•Higher viscosity lava remains

within volcano crater

Walter’s Kalapana store, Hawaii,

was buried in lava within a few
weeks in 1990
Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Eruption Products on Land
• Pyroclastic flow – dense
cloud formed from combination
of tephra and volcanic gases
− Fast moving, up to 700 C
Mountains: Why Are They There?
• Thickest crust found
below mountains
along convergent
plate boundaries
− Himalayas, 70 km thick
− Andes, up to 60 km thick
− “normal” crust 40 km thick

Himalayas - thickest
continental crust and
tallest mountains
Mountains: Why Are They There?
• Higher, younger mountains along present convergent
boundaries (e.g., Himalayas)
• Lower, older mountain belts represent ancient convergent
boundaries (e.g., Appalachians)
Mountains: Why Are They There?
India
Eurasia
• Reverse faults
stack up and
thicken the crust
along convergent
plate boundaries
− Additional
thickening of
crust where the
India Eurasia
northern margin
of Indian
continental crust
wedged below
southern margin
of Eurasia
Mountains: Why Are They There?
If the crust is 30 km thicker under the Himalayas, whey
are they not 30 km higher than the rest of the continents?

The elevation of mountains is tied to density and isostasy.

Mountains: Why Are They There?

Density = mass per unit volume

− Density of water = 1 g/cm3
− Density of pine wood = 0.5 g/cm3

• Wood floats because it is

less dense than water
− Density of pine is half (50%)
the density of water
− Half of the pine block lies
What would happen if we used below the water surface
a block of oak with a density
that is 80% that of water?
Mountains: Why Are They There?

• Density of oak is 80%

density of water
− 80% of oak blocks lies
below the surface
− Smaller blocks don’t
float as high but don’t
extend as far below
surface
− Much of the difference
in the size of the
blocks is in the
submerged “root”
Mountains: Why Are They There?

• Density of continental
crust is 80% density
of mantle
− Thicker continental
crust rises higher but
also extends farther
below the surface
− Much of the difference
in the thickness of the
continental crust is in
the crustal “root”
− Similar to deeper
foundation for taller
buildings
Mountains: Why Are They There?

• Elevation of mountains
depends on
− Thickness of crust
− Density contrast with
underlying mantle
• Isostasy – balance
between topography of
Earth’s surface and
thickness and density
of underlying rocks
− Higher mountains with
thicker or less dense
rocks
Volcanoes and Other Mountains Checkpoint 6.24

The following profile shows the topography of a

continent. Draw the relative position of the base
of the crust taking into account the principles of
isostasy. Label continental crust, oceanic crust,
and mantle. Explain your drawing.
The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures

• Changes in elevation depends on the relative

density of crust and mantle

The height of The height of

wood blocks wood blocks
and continents and
will decrease continents will
(float lower) as increase (float
mass is higher) as
removed mass is added

Elevation only changes by 20% of added/removed material

Most changes occur in “crustal root” below the surface
The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures

Elevation only changes by 20% of added/removed material

Most changes occur in “crustal root” below the surface

• Isostasy compensates for added material by

building a bigger root or for lost material by
raising the pile
The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures

• For every 1,000

meters of rock eroded
from mountains,
isostasy results in just
200 meters decrease
in elevation
− 800 meters of change
accommodated by
raising the crustal root
− Evenly distributed
erosion causes uniform
lowering of mountains
− Erosion concentrated in
valleys, can cause
peaks to become higher
The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures

• Mountains are long-lived features on Earth

− Still forming Himalayas began to form ~50 Myrs ago
− Lower Appalachian Mountains formed ~300 Myrs ago
The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures

• Mountains are long-lived features on Earth

− Approximate erosion rates  0.1-0.2 mm/year
− Rate depends of rock types, climate, other factors
− 5-10 Myrs to erode 1 km of rock
− But isostasy will replace 80% of this erosion
− 200 meter change in elevation every 5-10 Myrs
− 25-50 Myrs to lower mountains by 1 km

• Mountains ranges will persist on the

landscape for hundreds of millions of years