Objective

Statistics: What it
is?

Types of Statistics

Terminologies

Data STA104/QMT181
Variables

Level of

Introduction to
Measurement

designing
Questionnaire

Method of
Collecting data Statistics
Sampling

Types of Sampling
Techniques
SITI NOORUL AIN BT NOR AZEMI
Reference
Objective
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 To define the types of statistics Home

 To define the terms in statistics

 To identify method of collecting data
 To identify types of various sampling techniques
 Statistics : what it is?
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Statistics is a branch of
mathematics dealing
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with gathering, Home

analyzing, and making

inferences from data.

Example:
• 1. The number of cars accident in Johor.
• 2. Trend of student’s enrollment at UiTM Pahang.
• 3. Manufacturing production control.
Application Areas of
Statistics Previous

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Accounting Management
 Auditing  Describe employees
 Costing  Quality
improvement

Finance Marketing
 Financial trends  Consumer
 Forecasting preferences
 Marketing mix
effects
Types of statistics
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DESCRIPTIVE Home

STATISTICS
•Data are collected,
organized, summarized INFERENTIAL
and presented in suitable STATISTICS
visual forms which are
easy to understand and •Used to draw conclusion
suitable for use. or decision about a
population by analyzing
•(use graphical/numerical the sample.
techniques such as
tables, charts, graphs,
percentage and
average)
 Basic terms in statistics Previous

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• Complete set of all items Home

POPULATION

• A subset of items that are chosen

SAMPLE from the population

• A summary measures for the

PARAMETER entire population

• A summary measures for a

STATISTIC sample
 Basic terms in statistics (cont…)

• A study conducted
• A study involves a to measure a • A small exploratory
subgroup or sample variable for every study on small
of a population item in the number of
population of respondents before
interest. (Sample is the actual survey is
the whole conducted
population)
SAMPLE PILOT STUDY
SURVEY
CENSUS
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Basic terms in statistics (cont…)

•Measures the
characteristics
of the
VARIABLE population that
the researcher
wants to study

•Measure on a
variables of
DATA interest
obtained from
a sample

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 Types of Variables/Data
Data in numerical
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE form for example:
VARIABLE VARIABLE age, weight and
height.
Data in DISCRETE
non-
numerical Can be measured precisely by counting ;
form for eg number of flower, number of pen &
example: number of students
gender,
religion and CONTINUOUS
race Data that can only be approximated
to some accuracy using measuring
devices; eg height, temperature & time
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Home

Level of measurement
(variables scale)
If the different
between data values
are meaningful but
cannot be
manipulated with
multiplication and INTERVAL
division such as
temperature
Starting point RATIO
cannot be
negative value
(absolute/true
zero point) such as
body weight and
income
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A scale in which the
numbers or letters are
assigned to objects serve
as labels for
NOMINAL identification or
classification for example
gender
ORDINAL
A scale that is can be
arranged in ranking,
orders or rating. For
example, education level,
rate of services and
perception level
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Types of data
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SECONDARY
PRIMARY DATA Home

DATA
• Raw data or
firsthand data (Data • Published data
are collected or collected by other
obtained by the researcher. (Can be
researcher obtained from
himself/herself) newspaper, internet,
economic report)
• ***Discuss
advantages and • ***Discuss
disadvantages advantages and
disadvantages
 Method of collecting data Previous

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Methods of
Collecting Data
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Others
Direct Telephone
Interview Direct
Interview
Mailed Observation
Questionnaire
 Designing questionnaire Previous

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 What is questionnaire?
- A questionnaire is a written instrument that contains a series of
questions or items that attempt to collect information on a
particular subject.
Some steps when designing a questionnaire
a) SPECIFY THE INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED.

b) QUESTIONNAIRE SHOULD BE AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE

c) QUESTIONS MUST BE KEPT SIMPLE AND PHRASED TO IMPLY THE SAME MEANING TO ALL
RESPONDENTS.

d) AVOID LEADING QUESTIONS.

e) QUESTIONS SHOULD BE ORGANIZED SYSTEMATICALLY AND SHOULD HAVE SOME KIND OF

NATURAL LOGICAL SEQUENCE THAT THE RESPONDENT CAN APPRECIATE.

f) AVOID QUESTIONS THAT NEED CALCULATION.

g) AVOID QUESTIONS ON SENSITIVE ISSUE OR MAY BE PRIVATE TO THE RESPONDENTS.

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h) BEGIN WITH SIMPLE & LESS CONTROVERSIAL QUESTIONS FIRST, PUT THE MORE
CONTROVERSIAL QUESTIONS NEAR THE END. Next

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 Sampling

Definition Advantages Sampling

Terminologies
Techniques

Probability Non-
sampling probability
sampling
Sampling
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SAMPLING ADVANTAGES Home

• Process of • Reduce cost and time

selecting a • Less work
sample from a • Interviewer can give better
population attention to the respondents
• Reduce non-sampling error
 Terminologies

SAMPLING FRAME
•List of individuals or items from which the
sample can be obtained
SAMPLING UNIT
•The elements listed in the frame

SAMPLING ERROR
• Error that arise because a sample cannot give
complete information on a population.
NON-SAMPLING ERROR
•Error that occur from the survey:
•1. Non-response
•2. Faulty measuring device
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•3. Respondents giving false information Next

•4. Error in writing & analyzing data

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Sampling (cont…)
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILITY

- Any method of SAMPLING
sampling that utilizes - Does not involve
some form of random random selection.
selection. - Used when sampling
- The different units in frames are difficult to
the population have obtain.
equal probabilities of - Is considerably less
being chosen. expensive than doing
- Require complete probability sampling,
sampling frame but the results are of
limited value.
 SIMPLE
RANDOM
Sampling Techniques SAMPLING
SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING

STRATIFIED
SAMPLING
CLUSTER
SAMPLING
NON-PROBABILITY QUOTA MULTISTAGE
SAMPLING - SAMPLING SAMPLING

JUDGEMENTAL
SAMPLING

CONVENIENT PROBABILITY
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SAMPLING SAMPLING -
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Non-probability Sampling Previou
s

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Convenient Quota Judgemental

The most Sample are
convenient selected on the The researcher’s
items are basis of specific judgement is
selected for the guidelines used to decide
sample where about which which
they happen to items and/or population items
be at the right how many will be included
place and right should be in the sample.
time. drawn.

supermarket ceo
supermarket Not you

you

you you

Not you
Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 involves in the numbering of every individual in the population.
 used when the items are from a group of the same characteristic.
 How to select the sample?
 Small population (n < 300): - Using 'lottery method' where each item will be
given a number on a piece of paper and place in a box.

 Large population (n  300): - using random number table/excel/calculator

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 STEPS: LOTTERY METHODS

SAMPLING STEP 1: ASSIGN STEP 2: PUT STEP 3: SELECT SAMPLE

FRAME NUMBER TO EACH THE NUMBER ONE AT A TIME
STUDENT’S NAME INTO A BOWL (eg : 5 students)

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 STEPS: RANDOM NUMBER

SAMPLING STEP 1: ASSIGN STEP 2: SELECT

FRAME NUMBER TO EACH RANDOM
STUDENT’S NAME NUMBER

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Systematic Sampling

 the items are selected from the population at a ‘uniform interval’ of

a listed order providing that there is no regularity within the list.
 method: - using equal interval method or constant skip method
I=N/n where I = interval, N = population, n = sample size.
 Previous

STEPS: Next

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SAMPLING STEP 1: ASSIGN STEP 2: CALCULATE STEP 3: SELECT THE STEP 4: SELECT THE
FRAME NUMBER TO EACH THE INTERVAL FIRST SAMPLE SAMPLE
STUDENT’S NAME

e.g. N = 300 First sample next sample

n = 30 will be will be:
selected at 5+10,
random 15+10,
I = 300/30 (SRS) 25+10…
= 10th between 1
to 10,
5, 15, 25,
e.g. no 5 35…295
.
(until we
. reach the
.
300 sample size
of 30)
Example: Previous

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Stratified Sampling Previous

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 the population is divided into suitable sub-populations where

between groups are heterogeneous and within groups are
homogenous.
 All the groups will be selected and item from each group will be
selected randomly using simple random sampling or systematic
sampling.
 The same proportion of each group will be represented in correct
proportion using Proportional Stratified Sampling formula: -
Ni
ni = x n
N
where ni = sample size needed for each group
Ni = population size for each group
N = population size
n = sample size
 Previous

e.g. A lecturer is interested to conduct a research on reading

habits among students Part II at Cerdas College. Select a Next

sample of 60 students from a population of 200 students.

Home

Population Group A Group B Group C Group D

(N = 200) Population Population Population Population
(NA = 20) (NB = 60) (NC = 80) (ND = 40)
 STEPS:
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STEP 1: CALCULATE THE SAMPLE SIZE FOR EACH GROUP

𝑁𝑖
Groups Ni ni = xn
𝑁
20
nA = x 60 = 6
A 20 200

60
B 60 nB =
200
x 60 = 18
STEP 2: SELECT SAMPLE FOR EACH GROUP
80 USING SRS/SYSTEMATIC
nC = x 60 = 24
C 80 200

40
D 40 nD =
200
x 60 = 12

Total N = 200 n = 60
 Cluster Sampling

 the population is divided into sub population where between groups

are homogenous and within groups are heterogeneous.
 The groups will be selected at random and all the items in each
group will be chosen.
 The researcher selects groups or clusters, by either simple
random or systematic random sampling. The researcher can even
opt to include the entire cluster and not just a subset from it
(depending on number of sample).

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 e.g: A researcher wants to survey academic performance of
students in UiTM Raub. He divided the entire population (population
of students in UiTM Raub) into different clusters (program).

Population BM111 AM110

BM119
(N = 2000) (N = 650) (N = 800)
(N = 550)

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 Previous

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 Multistage Sampling

 a more complex form of cluster sampling which contains two or

more stages in sample selection.
 In simple terms, in multi-stage sampling large clusters of population
are divided into smaller clusters in several stages in order to make
primary data collection more manageable.
 This method can cut down the survey area and reduce the survey
costs from very large population

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Eg: A researcher wants to evaluate online spending Previous

patterns of households in Malaysia through online

questionnaires. Next

Home

SRS SRS SRS SRS

video

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 END OF
CHAPTER 1
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 Previous

Reference Home

 Sa’diah Sahat, Azizah Aris, Zulkifli Ab-Ghani, Hajar

Mohamed, & Jamaludin Ahmad. (2002). Statistics for
Business and Accounting. Mardani: Pahang.
 Salkind, N.J. (2004). Statistics for people who (think they)
hate Statistics. Sage: London.
 Triola, M.F (2008). Elementary Statistics with multimedia
study guide. 10th ed. Pearson: Boston.
 Upton, G. & Cook, I. (2006). Dictionary of Statistics. 2nd ed.
Oxford University Press: New York.
 Lau, T. K., Phang, Y. N. & Zainudin, A. (2009). Statistics for
UiTM. 2nd ed. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.