DIRECT CURRENT METERS

The history of the basic meter

movement used in direct-current
(dc) measurements can be traced to
Hans Oersted’s discovery in 1820 of
the relationship between current
and magnetism. In 1881 Jacques
d’Arsonval patented the moving coil
galvanometer which is being used
in the meter movements today.
The moving coil mechanism is generally set
in a jewel and pivot suspension system to
reduce friction. Another method of
suspension is the taut-band suspension
system which provides a more sensitive but
more expensive meter movement. A
typical full-scale current for a jewel & pivot
suspension system is 50 μA, whereas a full-
scale current of 2 μA for a taut-band system
is entirely practical.
The d’Arsonval meter movement is made up
of a horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet
with soft iron pole pieces attached to it.
Between the north-south pole pieces is a
cylindrical shaped soft iron core about which
a coil of fine wire is wound. This fine wire is
wound in a very light metal frame and
mounted in a jewel setting so that it can
rotate freely. A pointer attached to the
moving coil deflects up- scale as the moving
coil rotates.
Current from a circuit in which
measurements are being made
with the meter passes through the
windings of the moving coil.
Current through the coil causes it
to behave as an electromagnet
with its own north and south
poles.
The poles of the electromagnet
interact with the poles of the
permanent magnet, causing the
coil to rotate. The pointer deflects
up-scale whenever current flows
in the proper direction in the coil.
For this reason, all dc meter
movements show polarity
markings.
D’Arsonval Meter Movement Used in a
DC Ammeter
Since the windings of the moving coil are
of very fine wire, the basic d’Arsonval
meter movement has only limited
usefulness without modification. One
desirable modification is to increase the
range of current that can be measured
with the basic meter movement.
To increase the range of the meter is to
connect a low resistance in parallel with the
meter movement. This low resistance is
called a shunt and its function is to provide
an alternate path for the total metered
current around the meter movement. In
most circuits the current through the shunt
is much greater than the full-scale deflection
current of the meter movement. The
resistance of the shunt is found by applying
Ohm’s law.
Rsh = resistance of the shunt
Rm = resistance of the moving coil
Ish = current through the shunt
Im = full-scale deflection current of the meter
movement
I = full-scale deflection current for the ammeter
The voltage drop across the meter
movement is
Vm = ImRm
Since the shunt resistor is in parallel
with the meter movement, the
voltage drop across the shunt is equal
to the voltage drop across the meter
movement,
Vsh = Vm
The current through the shunt is equal to
the total current minus the current
through the meter movement
Ish = I - Im

the voltage across, and the current

through, the shunt allows us to determine
the shunt resistance as
Rsh = Vsh / Ish = ImRm / Ish = ImRm /( I – Im)
Calculate the value of the shunt resistance
required to convert a 1-mA meter
movement, with a 100-Ω internal
resistance, into a 0 – 10 mA ammeter.

Vm = ImRm = 1 mA x 100 ohm = 0.1 volt

Vsh = Vm = 0.1 volt
Ish = I - Im = 10 mA - 1 mA = 9 mA
Rsh = Vsh / Ish = 0.1 V / 0.009 A = 11.11 Ω
A 100 μA meter movement with an
internal resistance of 800 Ω is used in a
0 – 100 mA ammeter. Find the value of
the required shunt resistance.

Vm = ImRm = 0.0001 x 800 = 0.08 volt

Ish = I - Im = 0.1 - 0.0001 = 0.0999 A
Rsh = Vsh / Ish = 0.08 / 0.0999 = 0.8 Ω
The Ayrton Shunt is frequently used
for multiple-range ammeter. The
advantages of ayrton shunt: a) it
eliminates the possibility of the
meter movement being in the circuit
without any shunt resistance, b) it
may be used with a wide range of
meter movements.
 Im

I2

I3 I1
The individual resistance values of the
ayrton shunts are calculated by starting
with the most sensitive (lowest) range and
working toward the least sensitive (highest)
range. From the lowest range (1 A), the
shunt resistance is Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc. On
this range the shunt resistance is equal to
Rsh = Rm / (n-1),
where n is the multiplication factor,
n = I1 / Im.
I1 = lowest ammeter range
Connecting the selector switch to range 5A, the
Rm + Ra is in parallel with Rb + Rc, and the voltage
across each parallel branch should be equal and
can be written as
VRb +Rc = VRa+Rm

In current and resistance terms

(Rb + Rc)(I2 – Im) =Im (Ra + Rm)
I2(Rb+Rc) – Im(Rb+Rc) = Im(Rsh – (Rb+Rc) + Rm)
I2(Rb+Rc) – Im(Rb+Rc) = Im Rsh – Im(Rb+Rc) + ImRm
Rb+Rc = [Im(Rsh+Rm)] / I2
Rc = {[Im(Rsh+Rm)] / I2} – Rb

If the selector switch is placed on 10A range, Rc

is in parallel to Rm + Ra + Rb

Thus, Rc (I3 – Im) = Im (Rm + Ra + Rb)

Rc = [Im (Rm + Ra + Rb)] / (I3 – Im)
Rb = [(I3 – Im)/I3] [(Im/I2)(Rsh + Rm) –
{Im / (I3 – Im)}(Rm + Ra)]

Having already found the total shunt

resistance Rsh,

Ra = Rsh – (Rb + Rc)

Rc = (Rb + Rc) - Rb
Example:

Compute the value of the shunt

resistors Ra, Rb and Rc of the ayrton
shunt dc ammeter with Im = 100 μA
and Rm = 1 kΩ for current ranges of
10 mA, 100 mA and 1A.
Solution:
n = I1 /Im = 10 mA / 100 μA = 100
Rsh = Rm / (n – 1) = 1 kΩ / (100 – 1) = 10.1 Ω
Rb + Rc = (Im / I2) (Rsh + Rm)
= (100 μA / 100 mA) ( 10.1Ω + 1 kΩ)
= 1.01 Ω
Ra = Rsh – (Rb + Rc)
= 10.1Ω - 1.01Ω
= 9.09 Ω
Rb = (I3 – Im) / I3 [ (Im / I2) (Rsh + Rm) –
{ Im / (I3 – Im)} (Rm + Ra) ]
= ( 1A – 100 μA) / 1 A
[ (100 μA / 100 mA) ( 10.1 Ω + 1 kΩ) –
{ 100 μA /(1A – 100 μA)} (1 KΩ + 9.09 Ω)]
= 0.909 Ω

Rc = (Rb + Rc) – Rb
= 1.01Ω - 0.909 Ω
= 0.101 Ω
D’Arsonval Meter Movement used in a DC
Voltmeter
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement can
be converted to a dc voltmeter by
connecting a multiplier Rs in series with
the meter movement. The purpose of the
multiplier is to extend the voltage range of
the meter and to limit the current through
the d’Arsonval meter movement to a
maximum full-scale deflection current.
To find the value of the multiplier
resistor is to determine first the
sensitivity S of the meter movement.
The sensitivity is found by taking the
reciprocal of the full-scale deflection
current.
S = 1 / Ifs (Ω/V)
Sensitivity = 1 / amperes
= 1 / volt/ohms
= ohms / volt
The d’Arsonval meter movement used in a
dc voltmeter
Example:

Calculate the value of the multiplier

resistance on the 50-V range of a dc
voltmeter that used a 500 μA meter
movement with an internal resistance
of 1 KΩ.
Solution:

The sensitivity of the 500 μA meter

movement

S = 1 / Ifs = 1 / 500 μA = 2 kΩ /V
Rs = S x Range – Rm
= 2 (kΩ /V) x 50 V - 1 kΩ
= 99 kΩ
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistances
for the multiple-range dc voltmeter; 3V, 10V, 30V
using a meter movement with internal resistance
of 1 kΩ and full-scale deflection current of 50 μA.
Solution:

The sensitivity of the meter movemen

S = 1 / Ifs = 1 / 50 μA = 20 kΩ /V

a) The multiplier resistance for 3V range

Rs1 = S x Range - Rm
= 20 (kΩ/v) x 3V - 1 kΩ = 59 kΩ
b) The multiplier resistance for 10V range
Rs2 = S x Range - Rm
= 20 (kΩ/V) x 10V - 1 kΩ
= 199 kΩ

c) The multiplier resistance for 30V range

Rs3 = S x Range - Rm
= 20 (kΩ/V) x 30V - 1 KΩ
= 599 kΩ
Voltmeter Loading Effects

When a voltmeter is used to measure the

voltage across a circuit component, the
voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with
the circuit component. Since the parallel
combination of two resistors is less than
either resistor alone, the resistance seen
by the source is less with the voltmeter
connected than without.
 Therefore, the voltage across the
component is less whenever the
voltmeter is connected. The
decrease in voltage may be negligible
or it may be appreciable, depending
on the sensitivity of the voltmeter
being used. This effect is called
voltmeter loading, and the resulting
error is called a loading error.
Example:
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the
voltage across resistor Rb in the given circuit. The
meters are as follows:
Meter A : S = 1 kΩ/V, Rm = 0.2 k, range = 10V
Meter B: S = 20 kΩ/V, Rm = 1.5 k, range = 10V
Calculate:
a) Voltage across Rb without any meter
connected across it.
b) Voltage across Rb when meter A is used.
c) Voltage across Rb when meter B is used.
d) Error in voltmeter readings.
Solution:
a) The voltage across resistor Rb without
either meter connected
VRb = E [ Rb / (Ra + Rb) ]
= 30V x [ 5 kΩ / (25 kΩ + 5 kΩ)
= 5V
b) Starting with meter A, the total
resistance it presents to the circuit
RTa = S x Range
= 1 kΩ/V x 10V
= 10 kΩ
The parallel combination of Rb and meter A
Re1 = (Rb x RTa) / (Rb + RTa)
= (5 kΩ x 10 kΩ) / ( 5 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
= 3.33 kΩ

Therefore, the voltage reading obtained

with meter A
VRb = E x Re1 / (Re1 + Ra)
= 30V x 3.33 kΩ / (3.33 kΩ + 25 kΩ)
= 3.53 V
c) The total resistance that meter B presents
to the circuit
RTb = S x Range
= 20 kΩ/V x 10V
= 200 kΩ
The parallel combination of Rb and meter B
Re2 = (Rb x RTb) / (Rb + RTb)
= (5 kΩ x 200 kΩ) / ( 5 kΩ + 200 kΩ)
= 4.88 kΩ
Therefore, the voltage reading obtained
with meter B
VRb = E x Re2 / (Re2 + Ra)
= 30V x 4.88 kΩ / (4.88 kΩ + 25 kΩ)
= 4.9 V
d) Voltmeter A error
= [(5V – 3.53V) / 5V ] x 100% = 29.4%
Voltmeter B error
= [(5V – 4.9V) / 5V ] x 100% = 2%
Ammeter Insertion Effects
A frequent overlooked source of error in
measurements is the error caused by
inserting an ammeter in a circuit to obtain
a current reading. All ammeters contain
some internal resistance, which may range
from a low value for current meters
capable of measuring in the ampere range
to an appreciable value of 1 kΩ or greater
for microammeters.
Inserting an ammeter in a circuit
always increases the resistance of the
circuit and, reduces the current in the
circuit. The error caused by the
meter depends on the relationship
between the value of resistance in
the original circuit and the value of
resistance in the ammeter.
Consider the series circuit as shown in the figure
in which there is current through resistor R1. The
expected current Ie is the current flowing in the
circuit.
When an ammeter is connected in the circuit to
measure the current as shown in the figure, the
magnitude of the current will be reduced to Im as
a result of the added resistance Rm.
Relationship between Ie and Im
can be obtained by:
Ie = E / R1

Im = E / (R1 + Rm)

Im / Ie = R1 / (R1 + Rm)
Example:
A current meter that has an internal resistance of
78 Ω is used to measure the current through Rc in
the given figure. Determine the percentage of
error of the reading due to ammeter insertion.
The current meter will be connected into the
circuit between points X and Y in the schematic in
the given figure. We look back into the circuit from
terminals X and Y, the equivalent resistance is
Re = Rc + (RaRb) / (Ra + Rb) = 1 kΩ + 0.5 kΩ
= 1.5 kΩ
Therefore, the ratio of meter current to
expected current is
Im / Ie = Re / (Re + Rm)
= 1.5 kΩ / (1.5 kΩ + 78Ω) = 0.95
Im = 0.95 Ie
The current through the meter is 95% of the
expected current; therefore, the current meter
has caused a 5% error as a result of its insertion.
The percentage error attributable to ammeter
insertion is
Insertion error = [( Ie - Im /) Ie] x 100%
= 5.0%
The Ohmmeter
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement may also
be used in conjunction with a battery and a
resistor to construct a simple ohmmeter circuit
such as that shown in the given figure.
If points X & Y are connected, we have a
simple series circuit with current through
the meter movement caused by the
voltage source E. The magnitude of the
current is limited by the resistors Rz and
Rm. The resistor Rz consists of a fixed
portion and a variable portion. Connecting
points X and Y is equivalent to shorting the
test probes together on an ohmmeter to
zero the instrument before using it.
To prevent the ohmmeter from being zeroed if
the battery has aged considerably, the variable
portion of Rz is limited to 10% of Rz.
After the points X & Y are connected, the
variable part of Rz is adjusted to obtain the
exactly full-scale deflection on the meter
movement.
The magnitude of the current through the
meter movement can be determined by
applying Ohm’s law as
Ifs = E / (Rz + Rm)
To determine the value of the unknown resistor
we connect the unknown, Rx, between points X
and Y. The circuit current will be
I = E / (Rz + Rm + Rx)
The current I is less than the full-scale current Ifs
because of the additional resistance Rx. The ratio
of the current I to the full-scale deflection current
Ifs is equal to the ratio of the circuit resistances.
I / Ifs = [ E / (Rz + Rm + Rx)] / [ E / (Rz + Rm) ]
= (Rz + Rm) / (Rz + Rm + Rx)
Example:

A 1-mA full-scale deflection current

meter movement is to be used in an
ohmmeter circuit. The meter
movement has an internal resistance
of 100 and a 3-V battery will be used
in the circuit. Mark off the meter
face for reading resistance.
Solution:
The value of Rz which will limit the current to full-
scale deflection
Rz = (E / Ifs) – Rm
= (3 V / 1 mA) - 100Ω
= 2.9 kΩ
The value of Rx with 20% full-scale deflection,
I / Ifs = 20%
Rx = [(Rz + Rm) / (I / Ifs)] – (Rz + Rm)
= [(2.9 kΩ + 0.1 kΩ) / 0.2] – (2.9 kΩ + 0.1 kΩ)
= 12 kΩ
The value of Rx with 40% full-scale deflection
Rx = [(Rz + Rm) / (I/Ifs)] - (Rz + Rm)
= [(2.9 kΩ + 0.1 kΩ) / 0.4] - ( 2.9 kΩ + 0.1 kΩ)
= 4.5 kΩ
The value of Rx with 50% full-scale deflection
Rx = (3 kΩ / 0.5) - 3 kΩ
= 3 kΩ
The value of Rx with 75% full-scale deflection
Rx = (3 kΩ / 0.75) - 3 kΩ
= 1 kΩ
Ohmmeter scale showing nonlinear characteristics
Multiple-Range Ohmmeters
One way to build the multiple-range
ohmmeter is shown in the given figure.
This instrument makes use of basic 50
μA meter movement with an internal
resistance of 2 kΩ. An additional
resistance of 28 kΩ is provided by Rz,
which includes a fixed resistance and
the zeroing potentiometer. Rz is
necessary to limit the current through
the meter movement to 50 μA when the
test probes (X & Y) are shorted.
When the selector switch is set at R x
1 range, a 10-Ω resistor is in parallel
with the meter movement.
Therefore, the internal resistance of
the ohmmeter on the R x 1 range is
10Ω in parallel to 30 kΩ, which is
approximately 10Ω. This means the
pointer will deflect to midscale when
a 10-Ω resistor is connected across X
& Y.
When the selector switch is set at R x 10
range, the total resistance of the ohmmeter
is 100 Ω in parallel with 30 kΩ, which is
approximately 100 Ω . Therefore, the
pointer deflects to mid-scale when a 100-Ω
resistor is connected between the test
probes. Mid-scale is marked as 10 Ω .
Therefore, the value of the resistor is
determined by multiplying the reading by
the range multiplier of 10 producing a mid-
scale value of 100 Ω (R x 10).
When the switch is set at R x 100 range,
the total resistance of the instrument is
1 kΩ in parallel with 30 kΩ, which is still
approximately 1 kΩ. Therefore, the
pointer deflects to midscale when we
connect the test probes across a 1 kΩ
resistor. This provides us a value for the
midscale reading of 10 multiplied by
100, or 1 kΩ for our resistor.