 solubility—maximum amount of material that will

dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a given

temperature to produce a stable solution. In other
words, the solution is saturated.

 molar solubility—the number of moles of solute that

dissolves in exactly 1.0 L of solvent, expressed in
units of molarity, M or the use of square brackets.

 IonicSolutes - When ionic compounds dissolve in

water, they separate into ions. This process is called
dissociation. Note that because of dissociation, there
are more moles of particles in the solution containing
ions than there would be with the solute and solvent
separated.
 Solubility Rules: There are several rules to help you
determine which compounds will dissolve and which
will not.
 All compounds with Group 1 ions or ammonium ions
are soluble.
 Nitrates, acetates, and chlorates are soluble.
 Compounds containing a halogen are soluble, except
those with fluorine, silver, or mercury. If they have
lead, they are soluble only in hot water.
 Sulfates are soluble, except when combined with
silver, lead, calcium, barium, or strontium.
 Carbonates, sulfides, oxides, silicates, and phosphates
are insoluble, except for rule #1.
 Hydroxides are insoluble except when combined with
calcium, barium, strontium, or rule #1.
 Forexample, silver nitrate is soluble, but silver
chloride is not soluble (see the above rules).
Mixing silver nitrate into sodium chloride would
cause a cloudy white precipitate to form. This
happens because of a double replacement
reaction.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOLUBILITY
 Properties of solute
 Properties of solvent
 Temperature
 Pressure (Gases)
Polar solutes tend to dissolve
readily in polar solvents.
 Interactions between polar solutes are
typically dipole-dipole (or hydrogen-bonds)
 Interactions between molecules of a polar
solvent are also dipole-dipole (or Hydrogen
bonds)
 Thus, the energies associated with disrupting
solute-solute interactions and solvent-solvent
interactions are approximately equivalent.
 Entropic forces can subsequently drive the
dissolution process.
 Polar liquids tend to dissolve readily in polar
solvents
 Pairs of liquids that mix in any proportion are
termed MISCIBLE. Liquids that do not mix are
termed as IMMISCIBLE.
 “LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE”, it means that
substances with similar intermolecular attractive
forces tend to be soluble in one another
• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar
solvents
 CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
 C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar
solvents
 NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)
 Generally in many cases solubility increases
with the rise in temperature and decreases
with the fall of temperature but it is not
necessary in all cases.
 In endothermic process solubility increases
with the increase in temperature and vice
versa.
Endothermic -(of a reaction or process)
accompanied by or requiring the
absorption of heat.
Ex.
solubility of potassium nitrate increases
with the increase in temperature.
 In exothermic process solubility decrease
with the increase in temperature.
exothermic -of a reaction or process)
accompanied by the release of heat.

Ex:
solubility of calcium oxide decreases
with the increase in temperature.
 Gases are more soluble in cold solvent than
in hot solvent.
 Solvated gas molecules with enough
kinetic energy can escape from the
surface of a liquid (requires de-solvation of
solvent molecules)
 Kinetic energy increases with increasing
temperature
 Thus, increasing the temperature reduces
the solubility of gas molecules in a solvent.
 In contrast, gas solubilities in water decrease
with increasing temperature
 Insolubility of solid solutes is related to the
inability of solvent molecules to overcome the
attractive forces between solute molecules.
 Increases temperature results in increased
kinetic energy of the solvent molecules, as well
as the solute molecules
 The increased in kinetic energy of the solute
molecules favors separation of solute
molecules. Increased kinetic energy of the
solvent molecules allows them to separate the
solute molecules easier.
 Thus, increasing temperature increases the
solubility of solid solutes.
 Most solids become more soluble in water
with increasing temperature.
 Particlesize
 Rate of stirring
 Temperature