INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON
“POLLINATION: ITS TYPES &
DIFFERENT POLLINATING
AGENTS”
FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE NORMS
AND CONDITIONS LAID DOWN BY
AISSCE-2020

PREPARED BY-
SACHIN.A,
XII A,
ROLL NO- .

SUBMITTED TO MRS. USHA KUMARI

Dr.G.S.Kalyanasundaram Memorial
School. *
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and

sincere thanks to our biology teacher Mrs.
USHA KUMARI for her invaluable
guidance, constant encouragement,
constructive comments, sympathetic attitude
and immense motivation, which has
sustained my efforts at all stages of this
project work. Her valuable advice and
suggestions for the corrections, modifications
and improvement did enhance the perfection
in performing my job well. I would like to
express my gratitude to my parents for whole
hearted co-operation and guidance. I am also
thankful for their encouragement and for all
the facilities that they provided for this
project work. I sincerely appreciate this
magnanimity by taking me into their fold for
which I shall remain indebted to them.

*
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the
project work entitled
“POLLINATION: ITS TYPES AND
DIFFERENT POLLINATING
AGENTS” submitted to
Dr.G.S.Kalyanasundaram
Memorial School is a record of
original work done by me
under the guidance of
Mrs. USHA KAMARI .

SIGNATURE OF TEACHER

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT

*
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that SACHIN.A a

student of class-XII A has successfully
completed the research project on the
topic “POLLINATION: ITS TYPES
AND DIFFERENT POLLINATING
AGENTS” under the guidance of Mrs.
USHA KUMARI.This project is
completely genuine and does not
involve in plagiarism of any kind. The
references taken in making this project
have been declared at the end of this
project.

SIGNATURE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SIGNATURE OF INTERNAL EXAM INER

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
*
 CONTENTS

SL. NO. PARTICULARS PAGE

01 COVERPAGE 1
02 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
03 DECLARATION 3
04 CERTIFICATE 4
05 CONTENTS 5
06 ABSTRACT 6

TYPES OF POLLINATION:
07 AUTOGAMY, GEITONOGAMY, 7 - 11
XENOGAMY

INBREEDING DEPRESSION AND

08 12 - 13
ITS PREVENTION

09 AGENTS OF POLLINATION 14 – 25

10 CONCLUSION 26
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 27

*
 ABSTRACT
In flowering plants, male & female
gametes are produced in pollen grain &
embryo sac respectively. These
gametes are non-motile, therefore,
they have to be brought together for
fertilisation. Pollination is the
mechanism to achieve this objective.
The transfer of pollen grains, shed from
the anther to the stigma of a pistil for
fertilisation is called pollination.
Flowering plants have an amazing array
of adaptations to achieve pollination.
They make use of external agents to
achieve pollination.
These may be biotic or abiotic agents.
The mechanism of pollination is
described in detail in the following
sections. *
 TYPES OF
POLLINATION

*
TYPES OF POLLINATION
 AUTOGAMY
Self-pollination is an example of autogamy
that occurs in flowe.ring plants. Self-
pollination occurs when the sperm in the
pollen from the stamen of a plant goes to
the carpels of that same plant and fertilizes
the egg cell present. Self-pollination can
either be done completely autogamously or
geitonogamously. In the former, the egg and
sperm cells that united came from the same
flower. In the latter, the sperm and egg cells
can come from a different flower on the
same plant. While the latter method does
blur the lines between autogamous self-
fertilization and normal sexual reproduction,
it is still considered autogamous self-
fertilization.

*
 GEITONOGAMY
Geitonogamy is a type of self-pollination.
Geitonogamous pollination is sometimes
distinguished from the fertilizations that can result
from it, geitonogamy. If a plant is self-incompatible,
geitonogamy can reduce seed production.
In flowering plants, pollen is transferred from
a flower to another flower on the same plant, and in
animal pollinated systems this is accomplished by a
pollinator visiting multiple flowers on the same
plant. Geitonogamy is also possible within species
that are wind-pollinated, and may actually be a quite
common source of self-fertilized seeds in self-
compatible species. It also occurs
in monoecious gymnosperms. Although
geitonogamy is functionally cross-pollination
involving a pollinating agent, genetically it is similar
to autogamy since the pollen grains come from the
same plant.
Monoecious plants like maize show geitonogamy.
Geitonogamy is not possible for
strictly dioecious plants.

*
 XENOGAMY

Xenogamy (Greek xenos=stranger, gamos

=marriage) is the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of a
different plant. This is the only type
of pollination which during pollination
brings genetically different types of
pollen grains to the stigma.
The term xenogamy (along
with geitonogamy and autogamy) was
first suggested by Kerner in 1876. Cross-
pollination involves the transfer of pollen
grains from the flower of one plant to the
stigma of the flower of another plant.

*
 INBREEDING
DEPRESSION
Inbreeding result from mating between closely related
individuals.
Inbreeding depression is the decline in fitness and vigour
with decreased heterozygosity.
Inbreeding also reduce the reproductive ability.
Self-pollinated crops show no inbreeding depression, while
cross-pollinated crop show variable degree of inbreeding
depression.

EFFECTS OF INBREEDING -
Generally inbreeding is concerned with a reduction in vigour
and reproductive capacity that is fertility.
1. Reduction in vigour.
2. Increase in homozygosity.
3. Reduction in reproductive ability.
4. Appearance of lethal and sub-lethal alleles.
5. Reduction in yield.

*
 METHODS OF PREVENTING
INBREEDING DEPRESSION
(OUTBREEDING DEVICES)
Outbreeding devices for cross pollination:
Unisexuality or Dioecism: In this, plant either bears
male flowers or female flowers.
Dichogamy: Anther and stigma mature at different
times to avoid self pollination.
It is of two types :
Protandry: Maturation of androecium before
gynoecium e.g. Maize.
Protogyny: Maturation of gynoecium before
androecium e.g. Aristolochia
Herkogamy: It refers to presence of certain barriers in
flower which prevents self pollination. e.g.
Gynostegium and pollinia in Asclepiadaceae
(Calotropis)
Heterostyly: In this, flowers of different plants of the
same species possess different lengths of stamens and
styles, thus avoid self pollination. e.g. Oxalis, Primula.
Self incompatibility: It is a phenomenon in which
genetic mechanism of flower prevents the fusion of
gametes of genetically similar plants. This is also called*
as self-sterility and intraspecific incompatibility.
 AGENTS OF
POLLINATION

*
AGENTS OF POLLINATION
 ANEMOPHILY
Anemophily or wind pollination is a form
of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind.
Almost all gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are
many plants in the order Poales,
including grasses, sedges and rushes. Other common
anemophilous plants are oaks, sweet
chestnuts, alders and members of the
family Juglandaceae (hickory or walnut family).
Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a
lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts
(resulting in inconspicuous flowers), reduced
production of nectar, and the production of
enormous numbers of pollen grains. This
distinguishes them
from entomophilous and zoophilous species (whose
pollen is spread
by insects and vertebrates respectively).
Anemophilous pollen grains are light and non-sticky,
so that they can be transported by air currents. They
are typically 20–60 micrometres (0.0008–0.0024 in)
in diameter, although the pollen grains
of Pinus species can be much larger and much less
dense. Anemophilous plants possess well-
exposed stamens so that the pollens are exposed to
wind currents and also have large and
feathery stigma to easily trap airborne pollen grains. *
Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter
than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional
value to insects. However, insects sometimes gather pollen from
staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-
protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce.
Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured
by bees' electrostatic field. This may explain why, though bees
are not observed to visit ragweed flowers, its pollen is often
found in honey made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other
flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be
actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often
visiting grass flowers, and the
larger honeybees and bumblebees frequently gathering pollen
from corn tassels and other grains.
Anemophily is an adaptation that helps to separate the male and
female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the
effects of inbreeding. It often accompanies dioecy – the presence
of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.

*
 HYDROPHILY
Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form
of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by the flow
of waters, particularly in rivers and streams. Hydrophilous
species fall into two categories: those that distribute their
pollen to the surface of water, and those that distribute it
beneath the surface.
It is of 2 types-
EPIHYDROPHILY-
Surface pollination is more frequent and appears to be a
transitional phase between wind pollination and true
hydrophily. In these the pollen floats on the surface and
reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as
in Hydrilla, Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea.
In Vallisneria the male flowers become detached and float
on the surface of the water; the anthers are thus brought in
contact with the stigmas of the female flowers. Surface
hydrophily has been observed in several species
of Potamogeton as well as some marine species.
HYPOHYDROPHILY-
Species exhibiting true submerged hydrophily include Najas,
where the pollen grains are heavier than water, and sinking
down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple
female flowers, Posidonia australis and Zostera marina.
 ENTOMOPHILY
Entomophily or insect pollination is a form
of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but
not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects.
Flowers pollinated by insects typically advertise
themselves with bright colours, sometimes with
conspicuous patterns (honey guides) leading to
rewards of pollen and nectar; they may also have an
attractive scent which in some
cases mimics insect pheromones. Insect pollinators
such as bees have adaptations for their role, such as
lapping or sucking mouthparts to take in nectar, and in
some species also pollen baskets on their hind legs.
This required the co-evolution of insects and flowering
plants in the development of pollination behavior by
the insects and pollination mechanisms by the flowers,
benefiting both groups.
Many plants, including flowering plants such
as grasses, are instead pollinated by other
mechanisms, such as by wind.

*
Wind and water pollination require the production of vast
quantities of pollen because of the chancy nature of its
deposition. If they are not to be reliant on the wind or water
(for aquatic species), plants need pollinators to move their
pollen grains from one plant to another. They particularly need
pollinators to consistently choose flowers of the same species,
so they have evolved different lures to encourage specific
pollinators to maintain fidelity to the same species. The
attractions offered are mainly nectar, pollen, fragrances and oils.
The ideal pollinating insect is hairy (so that pollen adheres to
it), and spends time exploring the flower so that it comes into
contact with the reproductive structures.

*
 ORNITHOPHILY
Ornithophily or bird pollination is
the pollination of flowering plants by birds. This co
evolutionary association is derived from insect
pollination (entomophily) and is particularly well
developed in some parts of the world, especially
in the tropics and on some island chains. The
association involves several distinctive plant
adaptations forming a "pollination syndrome". The
plants typically have colourful, often red, flowers
with long tubular structures holding ample nectar
and orientations of the stamen and stigma that
ensure contact with the pollinator. Birds involved
in ornithophily tend to be
specialist nectarivores with brushy tongues, long
bills, capable of hovering flight or are light enough
to perch on the flower structures.
Bird pollination is considered as a costly strategy
for plants and it evolves only where there are
particular benefits for the plant. High altitude
ecosystems that lack insect pollinators, those in
dry regions or isolated islands tend to favour the
evolution of ornithophily in plants.
*
Plants adaptations can be grouped into mechanisms that attract
birds, those that exclude insects, protect against nectar theft
and pollination mechanisms in the strict sense. The ovules of
bird flowers also tend to have adaptations that protect them
from damage.
Most bird pollinated flowers are red and have a lot of nectar.
They also tend to be unscented. Flowers with generalized
pollinators tend to have dilute nectar but those that have
specialist pollinators such as hummingbirds or sunbirds tend to
have more concentrated nectar.

*
 CHIROPTEROPHILY
Bat-pollinated flowers tend to be large and
showy, white or light coloured, open at night
and have strong odours. They are often large
and bell-shaped. Bats drink the nectar, and
these plants typically offer nectar for extended
periods of time. Sight, smell, and echo-
location are used to initially find the flowers,
and excellent spatial memory is used to visit
them repeatedly. In fact, bats can identify
nectar-producing flowers using
echolocation. In the New World, bat pollinated
flowers often have sulfur-scented compounds,
but this does not carry to other parts of the
world. Bat-pollinated plants have bigger pollen
than their relatives.

*
 MALACOPHILY
Pollination by slugs and
snails is called malacophily.
Land plants like
Chrysanthemum, Colocasia
and water plant like Lemna
shows malacophily.

*
 OPHIOPHILY

Pollination by Snake is
known as Ophiophilly.
e.g., Santalum, Michelia,
Arisaema.

*
 CONCLUSION
Pollination is the process by
which pollen is transferred to the female
reproductive organs of a plant, thereby
enabling fertilization to take place. Like
all living organisms, seed plants have a
single major purpose: to pass their genetic
information on to the next generation. The
reproductive unit is the seed, and
pollination is an essential step in the
production of seeds in
all spermatophytes (seed plants).

*
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

GRB NEW ERA, BIOLOGY

TRUEMAN’S BIOLOGY
www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
www.yahooanswers.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll
ination