Descent with Modification: A Darwinian

View of Life
The Origin of Species
The Evolution of Populations

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 Darwin Introduces a Revolutionary Theory
 A new era of biology began on November

24, 1859
◦ The day Charles Darwin published On the Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
 The Origin of Species
◦ Focused biologists’ attention on the great
diversity of organisms

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 Darwin made two major points in his book
◦ He presented evidence that the many species of
organisms presently inhabiting the Earth are
descendants of ancestral species
◦ He proposed a mechanism for the evolutionary
process, natural selection.
 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views
of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species.
 The Origin of Species
◦ Shook the deepest roots of Western culture
◦ Challenged a worldview that had been prevalent for
centuries

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 The Greek philosopher Aristotle
◦ Viewed species as fixed and unchanging
 The Old Testament of the Bible
◦ Holds that species were individually designed by
God and therefore perfect
 Carolus Linnaeus
◦ Interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence
that the Creator had designed each species for a
specific purpose
◦ Was a founder of taxonomy, classifying life’s
diversity “for the greater glory of God”

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 Geologists Hutton and Lyell
◦ Perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can
result from slow continuous actions still operating
today
◦ Exerted a strong influence on Darwin’s thinking
 The study of fossils
◦ Helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas
 Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past
◦ Usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers
or strata.
 Paleontology, the study of fossils
◦ Was largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier
 Cuvier opposed the idea of gradual evolutionary change
◦ And instead advocated catastrophism, speculating that
each boundary between strata represents a catastrophe

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 French biologist, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck tried to explain
how evolution occurs through his theory – Lamarckism.
 Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve
◦ Through use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired
traits
◦ He proposed that traits acquired during the lifetime of an
organism such as muscular strength due to exercise, are
inherited by subsequent generations
◦ But the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by
evidence and he is now remembered for the incorrect
mechanism which he proposed for evolution –
Lamarckism !!

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 In The Origin of Species, Darwin proposed that
species change through natural selection
 As the 19th century dawned
◦ It was generally believed that species had
remained unchanged since their creation, but a
major change would challenge this thinking

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 As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin
◦ Had a consuming interest in nature
 Soon after Darwin received his B.A. degree
◦ He was accepted on board the HMS Beagle, which
was about to embark on a voyage around the
world

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 During his travels on the Beagle
◦ Darwin observed and collected many specimens
of South American plants and animals
 Darwin observed various adaptations of plants and
animals
◦ That inhabited many diverse environments

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 Darwin’s interest in the geographic
distribution of species
◦ Was kindled by the Beagle’s stop at the
Galápagos Islands near the equator
west of South America

England
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN

Galápagos AFRICA HMS Beagle in port

Islands

SOUTH
Darwin in 1840, AMERICA
after his return
AUSTRALIA
Andes

Cape of
Good Hope

Tasmania
Cape Horn New
Tierra del Fuego Zealand

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 As Darwin reassessed all that he had
observed during the voyage of the
Beagle
◦ He began to perceive adaptation to the
environment and the origin of new species as
closely related processes

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 From studies made years after Darwin’s
voyage
◦ Biologists have concluded that this is indeed
what happened to the Galápagos finches

(a) Cactus eater. The long, (c) Seed eater. The large ground
sharp beak of the cactus finch (Geospiza magnirostris)
ground finch (Geospiza has a large beak adapted for
scandens) helps it tear cracking seeds that fall from
and eat cactus flowers plants to the ground.
and pulp.

(b) Insect eater. The green warbler

finch (Certhidea olivacea) uses its
narrow, pointed beak to grasp insects.

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 In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the
origin of species and natural selection
◦ But he was reluctant to introduce his theory
publicly, anticipating the uproar it would cause
 In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript
from Alfred Russell Wallace
◦ Who had developed a theory of natural selection
similar to Darwin’s
 Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
◦ And published it the next year

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 Darwin developed two main ideas
◦ Evolution explains life’s unity and diversity
◦ Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution

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 The phrase descent with modification
◦ Summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity
of life
◦ States that all organisms are related through
descent from an ancestor that lived in the
remote past

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 In the Darwinian view, the history of life is
like a tree
◦ With multiple branchings from a common
trunk to the tips of the youngest twigs that
represent the diversity of living organisms

Sirenia
Elephas Loxodonta Loxodonta
Hyracoidea (Manatees
maximus africana cyclotis
(Hyraxes) and relatives)
Years ago

(Asia) (Africa) (Africa)

Mammuthus
Stegodon
Mammut
Deinotherium

Platybelodon
Millions of years ago

Barytherium
Moeritherium

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 Linnaeus’ hierarchical system of classification
meshed well with Darwin’s hypothesis.
 To Darwin, the Linnaean hierarchy reflected the
branching history of the tree of life, with
organisms at the various levels related through
descent from common ancestors.
 Darwin proposed a mechanism, natural
selection to explain about evolution.
 He described natural selection in a series of

observations and deductions/inferences.

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 Observation #1: For any species, population
sizes would increase exponentially and all
species are capable of producing more
offspring than their environment can support
◦ If all individuals that are born reproduced
successfully
 Observation #2: Nonetheless, populations tend
to be stable in size (constant)
◦ Except for seasonal fluctuations
 Observation #3: Resources are limited, many
of the offspring do not survive

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 Inference #1: Production of more individuals
than the environment can support
◦ Leads to a struggle for existence among individuals
of a population, with only a fraction of their
offspring surviving

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 Observation #4: Members of a population
vary extensively in their characteristics
◦ No two individuals are exactly alike

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 Observation #5: Much of this variation is heritable
 Inference #2: Survival depends in part on inherited traits
◦ Individuals whose inherited traits give them a high
probability of surviving and reproducing are likely to leave
more offspring than other individuals
 Inference #3: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and
reproduce
◦ Will lead to a gradual change in a population, with favorable
characteristics accumulating over generations

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 Artificial selection is different from natural
selection.
 In the process of artificial selection
◦ Humans have modified other species over many
generations by selecting and breeding individuals that
possess desired traits

Terminal Lateral
bud buds

Cabbage Brussels sprouts

Flower
Leaves
cluster

Cauliflower Kale

Flower
Stem
and
stems
Broccoli Wild mustard Kohlrabi

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 Natural selection is differential success
in reproduction
◦ That results from the interaction between
individuals that vary in heritable traits and
their environment

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 Natural selection can produce an increase
over time in the adaptation of organisms to
their environment

(a) A flower mantid

in Malaysia

(b) A stick mantid

in Africa

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 If an environment changes over time
◦ Natural selection may result in adaptation to
these new conditions

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 Darwin’s theory explains a wide range of
observations
 Darwin’s theory of evolution

◦ Continues to be tested by how effectively it can

account for additional observations and
experimental outcomes

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 Darwin’s observations of the geographic
distribution of species, biogeography
◦ Formed an important part of his theory of
evolution

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 Some similar mammals that have
adapted to similar environments
◦ Have evolved independently from
different ancestors

NORTH
AMERICA
Sugar
glider

AUSTRALIA

Flying
squirrel

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 In science, a theory
◦ Accounts for many observations and data and attempts to
explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
◦ Integrates diverse areas of biological study and stimulates
many new research questions

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 Two examples
◦ Provide evidence for natural selection
 Researchers have observed natural selection
◦ Leading to adaptive evolution in guppy populations
EXPERIMENT Reznick and Endler transplanted guppies from pike-cichlid pools to killifish pools
and measured the average age and size of guppies at maturity over an 11-year period (30 to
60 generations).
Pools with killifish,
but not guppies prior
to transplant

Experimental
transplant of
Predator: Killifish; preys guppies
mainly on small guppies

Guppies:
Larger at
sexual maturity
than those in
“pike-cichlid pools”

Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on large guppies

Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity than
those in “killifish pools”
 RESULTS After 11 years, the average size and age at maturity of guppies in the transplanted
populations increased compared to those of guppies in control populations.
Weight of guppies
at maturity (mg)

at maturity (days)
Control Population: Guppies

Age of guppies
185.6
161.5 85.7 92.3
from pools with pike-cichlids
58.2 as predators
48.5
67.5 76.1
Experimental Population:
Guppies transplanted to
Males Females Males Females pools with killifish as
predators

CONCLUSION Reznick and Endler concluded that the change in predator resulted in different variations
in the population (larger size and faster maturation) being favored. Over a relatively short time, this altered
selection pressure resulted in an observable evolutionary change in the experimental population.
 In humans, the use of drugs
◦ Selects for pathogens that through chance
mutations are resistant to the drugs’ effects
 Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution
 Researchers have developed numerous drugs
to combat HIV
◦ But using these medications selects for viruses
resistant to the drugs
Percent of HIV resistant to 3TC

Patient
No. 1
Patient No. 2

Patient No. 3

Weeks
 The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve
rapidly
◦ Poses a challenge to our society