LECTURE NO 10

INTERSECTIONS

1) Transportation Engineering by C. Jotin

Khisty and B. Kent Lall (Pages 287 – 301)
 TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS
Intersections are an inevitable part of any street
system. Driving around any city, one notices that
a large majority of urban streets share an
intersection, where drivers can decide whether
to go straight or turn on to another street.
A road or street intersection can be defined as
the general area where two or more roads join
or cross, including the roadway and roadside
facilities for traffic movement within it
(AASHTO, 2001).
Because an intersection has to be shared by
everybody wanting to use it, it needs to be
designed with great care, taking into
consideration efficiency, safety, speed, cost of
operation, and capacity. The actual traffic
movement and its sequence can be handled
by various means, depending on the type of
intersection needed (AASHTO, 2001).
Geometric design of transportation facilities must
provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts. These
may be classified as merging, diverging, weaving, and
crossing conflicts.
Merging conflicts occur when vehicles enter a traffic
stream;
Diverging conflicts occur when vehicles leave the
traffic stream;
Weaving conflicts occur when vehicles cross paths by
first merging and then diverging; and
Crossing conflicts occur when they cross paths
directly.
Types of Traffic Conflicts
Three basic ways of resolving crossing conflicts.
Time-sharing solutions involve assignment of the
right-of-way to particular movements for particular
times. An example of this type of solution is the
signalized intersection.
Space-sharing solutions convert crossing conflicts
into weaving conflicts. An example of this is the
traffic circle or rotary.
Grade separation solutions eliminate the crossing
conflict by placing the conflicting traffic streams at
different elevations at their point of intersection.
Examples of this solution are freeway interchanges
and highway-railway grade separations.
 TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS

In general, there are three types of

intersections:
(1) intersection at grade,
(2) grade separations without ramps,
(3) interchanges.
The common intersection at grade is one where two or
more highways join, with each highway radiating from
an intersection and forming part of it. These
approaches are referred to as intersection legs. Such
intersections have their own limitations and use.
Exampe of at Grade Intersection
When it is necessary to accommodate high
volumes of traffic safely and efficiently
through intersections, one resorts to through
traffic lanes separated in grade, and this is
generally referred to as an interchange.
The basic types of interchanges are shown in
slides to follow. When two highways or
streets cross each other at a different grade,
with no connections, the arrangement is
referred to as a grade separation.
Types of Interchanges
Types of Interchanges
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND
OBJECTIVES
The objective of intersection design is to reduce
the severity of potential conflicts between
vehicles (including pedestrians) while providing
maximum convenience and ease of movement to
vehicles.
Interchanges are high-cost facilities, and because
of the wide variety of site conditions, traffic
volumes, and interchange layouts, the warrants
that justify an interchange may differ at each
location. The bottom line when considering
adoption of an interchange is clear:
Four basic elements are generally considered in the
design of at-grade intersections:

1) Human factors, such as driving habits and

decision and reaction times
2) Traffic considerations, such as capacities and
turning movements, vehicle speeds, and size and
distribution of vehicles
3) physical elements, such as characteristics and use
of abutting property, sight distance, and geometric
features
4) Economics factors, such as costs and benefits and
energy consumption
 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Traffic control devices include signs, movable
barriers, and signals. All these can be used
alone or in combination if necessary. They are
the primary means of regulating, warning, or
guiding traffic, on all streets and highways.
Traffic control devices strive to provide safe
and efficient functioning of intersections by
separating conflicting vehicle streams in time.
Specifically, traffic signs and markings fulfill the
following purposes: the regulation of traffic (e.g.,
speed limits), turn prohibition, alerting and warning
drivers and pedestrians regarding roadway
conditions, and guiding traffic along appropriate
routes to reach trip destinations through signs and
markings.
Naturally, to be effective, control devices must meet
the following basic requirements:
1) Fulfill a need
2) Command attention
3) Convey a clear, simple meaning
4) Command respect of road users
5) Give adequate time for proper response
 Traffic signs fall into four broad areas of functional
classification according to use:

1)Regulatory signs are used to impose legal restrictions

applicable to particular locations. They inform
drivers of certain laws and regulations, the violation
of which constitutes a misdemeanor (misdeed).
There are four principal groups excluding those for
pedestrians:
a) right-of-way signs, the most common being stop
and yield signs;
b) speed signs;
c) movement signs, such as turning or one-way signs;
d) parking signs.
2) Warning signs are used to call attention to
hazardous conditions, actual or potential, that
would otherwise not be readily apparent. Such
signs require caution on the part of the driver
and may call for a speed reduction or other
maneuver.
Typical conditions where warning signs are used
include highway construction zones and
approaches to intersections, merging areas,
pedestrian crossings, and school zones.
3) Guide or informational signs provide
directions to drivers and to various
destinations. These are placed far enough
ahead of intersections and interchanges to
allow adequate time for drivers to make their
routing decisions.

4)Directional signs on high-speed highways are

used at interchanges associated with freeways.
CONFLICT AREAS AT INTERSECTIONS
Figure 8-3 shows vehicle streams and the merging,
diverging, and crossing maneuvers for a simple
four-leg intersection, and for a more complicated
staggered intersection.
Such diagrams are useful because the number and
type of conflicts may indicate the accident potential
of an intersection.
In the case of a regular two-lane, two-way, four-leg
intersection there are 16 potential crossing conflict
points, eight merging and eight diverging conflict
points.
Vehicle Streams and the Merging, Diverging, and Crossing Maneuvers
The staggered T-intersection shown in the figure
serves about the same function as the four-leg
intersection, and consists of only six potential
crossing conflict points, three diverging and three
merging conflict points.
Is the staggered Tintersection,
therefore, superior to the
four-leg intersection?
Not really. There are several other factors that play
an important part in deciding the merits of adopting
a particular type or design of intersection for a
specific site.
 TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROLS
There are at least six principal ways of controlling
traffic at intersections, depending on the type of
intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the
vehicle streams.
Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the
following conditions:
• Intersection of a less important road with a main
road, where application of the
• Normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazardous
• Intersection of a county road, city street, or
township road with a state highway
• Street entering a through highway or street
•Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area
•Unsignalized intersection where a combination of
high speed, restricted view, and serious accident
record indicates a need for control by the stop sign
Yield signs are established as follows:
1) On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection
when it is necessary to assign the right-of-way to
the major road, but where a stop is not necessary
at all times, and where the safe approach speed on
the minor road exceeds 10 mph
2) On the entrance ramp to an expressway, where an
adequate acceleration lane is not provided
3)Where there is a separate or channelized right-
turn lane without an adequate acceleration lane
4)At any intersection where a problem can be
possibly corrected by a yield sign installation
5)Within an intersection with a divided highway,
where a stop sign is present at the entrance to the
first roadway, and further control is necessary at
the entrance to the second roadway. Median width
between roadways must exceed 30 ft.
 Intersection Channelization
Channelization is the separation or regulation of
conflicting traffic movements into definite paths of
travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to
facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both
vehicles and pedestrians.
Proper channelization increases capacity, improves
safety, provides maximum convenience, and instills
driver confidence. Channelization is frequently used
along with stop or yield signs or at signalized
intersections.
 Some basic principles to help design channelized
intersections are as follows:
1) Motorists should be provided with channel lines
that are easy to follow.
2) Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be
avoided.
3) Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as
much as possible.
4) Traffic streams that cross without merging and
weaving should intersect at or near right angles.
4)Islands should be carefully selected and be as few
as possible.
5)Over channelization should be avoided, as it has
proved to be counterproductive.
Figure gives typical examples of channelized intersections.
The Intersection Channelization Design Guide (TRB, 1985)
and AASHTO (2001) provide further details on
channelization.
Typical examples of Channelized
Intersections
 Rotaries and Roundabouts
Rotaries and roundabouts are channelized
intersections comprising a central circle surrounded
by a one-way roadway. The basic difference between
rotaries and roundabouts is that rotaries are generally
signalized, whereas roundabouts are not. Naturally, in
the case of roundabouts, entering traffic yields to
traffic already within.
Roundabouts generally have good safety records and
traffic does not have to stop when traffic volumes are
low. A well-designed roundabout should deflect the
path of vehicles passing through an intersection by the
use of a sufficiently large central island, properly
designed approach islands, and staggering the
alignment of entries and exits (see Figure).
 Uncontrolled Intersections
Where an intersection has no control device what so
ever, the operator of a vehicle approaching an
intersection must be able to perceive a hazard in
sufficient time to alter the vehicle's speed, as
necessary, before reaching the intersection.
The time needed to start decelerating is the driver's
perception and reaction time and may be assumed
to be 2.0 seconds plus an additional 1.0 second to
actuate braking or to accelerate to regulate speed. .
In addition, the driver needs to begin braking some
distance from the intersection.
 Traffic Signal Devices
One of the most important and effective methods of
controlling traffic at an intersection is the use of
traffic signals. The traffic signal is an electrically
timed device that assigns the right-of-way to one or
more traffic streams so that these traffic streams
can pass through the intersection safely and
efficiently. Traffic signals are appropriate for
minimizing the following:
1) Excessive delays at stop signs and yield
signs
2) Problems caused by turning movements
3) Angle and side collisions
4) Pedestrian accidents