THINKING

OUT
LOUD
thinking
 THINKING
It is a type of behavior that uses symbols as “inner
representations” of objects and events.
Symbolic references are remembered, absent, or
are imagined things and events, including those that
are currently impinging on the sensory system.
 directed thinking

-has an aim, goal or end point

-it includes the kind of critical thinking
when making judgements on
propositions
 creative thinking

- attempts to discover new relationships,

achieve new solutions to problems,
invent new methods or devices, and
produce new artistic forms
 the thinking process involves

a) the presence of a problem

b) the definition of the problem involving the
arousal of relevant concepts
c) the weighing of relevance or probabilities
d) verification
 2 different theories that define the
functions of the brain
PERIPHERALISTS - hold that thinking goes on in
muscular movement and all that psychology
requires is a stimulus-response analysis of
thinking
CENTRALISTS - hold that thinking goes on inside
the brain and nervous system, and muscular
movements merely accompany the “central
process”
concepts
 category

-a set of objects that can be treated as

equivalent in some way
-the psychology of categories concerns how
people learn, remember, and use informative
categories
 concepts
- are categories or groupings of linguistic information,
images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences.
- they are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by
observing details, and categorizing and combining these details
into cognitive structures. You use concepts to see the relationships
among the different elements of your experiences and to keep the
information in your mind organized and accessible.
- are informed by our semantic memory
-concepts allow you to extend what you have learned about
a limited number of objects to a potentially infinite set of entities.
 prototype

-is the best example or representation of a concept.

- are used to enhance memory and recall, since you can
keep a prototype of something and then match new,
similar things to the prototype in order to identify,
categorize, or store this new thing.
 natural concept

-are created “naturally” through your experiences

and can be developed from either direct or
indirect experiences.
-our concept of snow is an example of a natural
concept—one that we understand through direct
observation and experience.
 artificial concept

-is a concept that is defined by a specific set

of characteristics.
-various properties of geometric shapes, like
squares and triangles, serve as useful
examples of artificial concepts.
 The use of artificial concepts to define an
idea is crucial to communicating with others
and engaging in complex thought.
According to Goldstone and Kersten
(2003), concepts act as building blocks and
can be connected in countless combinations
to create complex thoughts.
 schema
-is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or
collection of related concepts (Bartlett, 1932)
- is a method of organizing information that allows the
brain to work more efficiently
-When a schema is activated, the brain makes
immediate assumptions about the person or object
being observed.
TYPES OF
SCHEMA
 role schema

-makes assumptions about how individuals in

certain roles will behave (Callero, 1994)
- also help you fill in gaps in the information
you receive from the world around you.
 event schema

-also known as a cognitive script, is a set of

behaviors that can feel like a routine
-can vary widely among different cultures and
countries
-because event schemata are automatic, they can
be difficult to change
Problem
solving
 There is a problem whenever a goal-oriented
activity is blocked, or whenever a need remains
unfulfilled or perplexity is unresolved.
PROBLEM SOLVING involves discovering correct
responses to new situations. It involves the
appropriate combination of concepts, ideas, and
skills.
Previously acquired conceptual habits play a major
role in the manner and ease with which problems
are solved
 problem-solving strategy

-is a plan of action used to find a solution

-different strategies have different action
plans associated with them
 trial and error
-“If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again”
describes trial and error
-you would continue to try different solutions
until you solved your problem. Although trial
and error is not typically one of the most
time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly
used one
 algorithm
-is a problem-solving formula that provides
you with step-by-step instructions used to
achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman,
2011)
-are used frequently in our everyday lives,
especially in computer science
 heuristic
- is a general problem-solving framework
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
-you can think of these as mental shortcuts
that are used to solve problems
-“rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic
 Different types of heuristics are used in different
types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic
occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis,
1989):
When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use
in making the decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to
mind in the same moment
 heuristic
- is a general problem-solving framework
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
-you can think of these as mental shortcuts
that are used to solve problems
-“rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic
 problem solving strategies
Method Description Example

Trial and error Continue trying different solutions Restarting phone, turning off WiFi,
until problem is solved turning off bluetooth in order to
determine why your phone is
malfunctioning

Algorithm Step-by-step problem-solving Instruction manual for installing

formula new software on your computer

Heuristic General problem-solving Working backwards; breaking a

framework task into steps
 additional strategies
ABSTRACTION: solving the problem in a model of the
system before applying it to the real system.
ANALOGY: using a solution for a similar problem.
BRAINSTORMING: suggesting a large number of
solutions and developing them until the best is found.
DIVIDE AND CONQUER: breaking down a large, complex
problem into smaller, solvable problems.
ROOT-CAUSE ANALYSIS: identifying the cause of a
problem.
 additional strategies
HYPOTHESIS TESTING: assuming a possible explanation to the
problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove)
the assumption.
MEANS-ENDS ANALYSIS: choosing an action at each step to
move closer to the goal.
PROOF: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The
point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving
it.
REDUCTION: transforming the problem into another problem
for which solutions exist.
 Behavior that may interfere with efficient
problem-solving are:

a. HABITUAL SET - the tendency to persist in

applying a solution that was once efficient bt
is no longer applicable
b. FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS - the inability to
see alternative uses for a tool or object whose
familiar use has become fixed
KNOWLEDGE - needed for efective problem solving
- verified by the methods of science, has
made many discoveries, achievements, and inventions
possible.
Scientific activity is problem solving organized in
the following steps: preparation, incubation,
illumination, and verification. This is not the formal
order of the scientific method, but these are the steps
in the germination of ideas that are original and
inventive.
DECISION
MAKING
 DECISION MAKING is the process
by which an individual analyzes the
advantages and disadvantages of the
issues and make alternative choices.
 Based on information processing models,
when people make a delibertation they
consider two factors:
1.The value of the decision or validity or
usefulness of each decision
2.The probability or estimated consequences
WEIGHTED UTILITY VALUE
-is the combined judgement of the importance of
an attribute and the extent to which given option
satisfies it

expected utility
-is a combined judgement of the weighted utility
and the expected probability of obtaining an outcome
(Western, 2002)
 Rational Decision Making
Bazerman and Moore (2013) outline the following six steps
that you should take to make a rational decision:
1. Define the problem (i.e., selecting the right graduate program)
2. Identify the criteria necessary to judge the multiple options
(location, prestige, faculty, etc.)
3. Weight the criteria (rank them in terms of importance to you)
4. Generate alternatives (the schools that admitted you
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion (rate each school on
each criteria that you identified, and
6. Compute the optimal decision
Biases in our
Decision
Process
 achoring bias

-occurs when people rely too much on pre-

existing information or the first information
they find when making decisions.
 overconfidence bias

-is a tendency to hold a false and misleading

assessment of our skills, intellect, or talent. In
short, it’s an egotistical belief that we’re better
than we actually are.
 framing bias

-occurs when people make a decision based on

the way the information is presented, as opposed
to just on the facts themselves. The same facts
presented in two different ways can lead to
people making different judgments or decisions.
 confirmation bias

-is the tendency to focus on information that

confirms your existing beliefs.
 Hindsight bias

-leads you to believe that the event you just

experienced was predictable, even though it
really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along
that things would turn out the way they did.
 Representative bias

- describes a faulty way of thinking, in which

you unintentionally stereotype someone or
something
 availability heuristic

-is a heuristic in which you make a decision

based on an example, information, or recent
experience that is that readily available to
you, even though it may not be the best
example to inform your decision.
 Biases tend to “preserve that which is
already established—to maintain our
preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes,
and hypotheses” (Aronson, 1995;
Kahneman, 2011).
 Judgment in the context of decision
making could be summarized as:

1. The ability or capacity to decide

2. The thought processes used to decide
3. The decision outcome that comes from
exercising judgment
strategies that can
be used in decision
making
 additive strategy

-where each alternative is rated on their

important factor; the highest overall
rating is chosen
 elimination strategy

-arranging the option from most important

to the least important. ANy decision that
does not satisfy the most important is totally
disregarded. The most important alternative
that survives is accepted
 HEURISTIC

-a rule of thumb taken from experience,

although there is no assurance of its
accuracy or usefulness.
 framing or understanding the
problem

-it mentally analyzes if the decision is

potentially useful or useless
 thank you!

Abang, Janrick Brylle Q. Alcanciado, Hannah Pauline B.

Anyog, Jan Cyrel Anglo, Jesserie Grace C.
Batalang Justinne Froi G. Baῆez, Shaina P.
Bilgera, Michael Angelo M. Castillo, Mhel Florence C.
Camacam, Marc Hanson O. Dadpaas, Zedric O.