Introduction to Control

Dr. Muhammad Aamir

Assistant Professor
Bahria University Islamabad
Introduction to Control Systems
Objectives
In this chapter we describe a general process for designing a control system.

A control system consisting of interconnected components is designed to achieve a

desired purpose. To understand the purpose of a control system, it is useful to
examine examples of control systems through the course of history. These early
systems incorporated many of the same ideas of feedback that are in use today.

Modern control engineering practice includes the use of control design strategies for
improving manufacturing processes, the efficiency of energy use, advanced
automobile control, including rapid transit, among others.

We also discuss the notion of a design gap. The gap exists between the complex
physical system under investigation and the model used in the control system
synthesis.

The iterative nature of design allows us to handle the design gap effectively while
accomplishing necessary tradeoffs in complexity, performance, and cost in order to
meet the design specifications.
Introduction

System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.

Process – The device, plant, or system

under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-
effect relationship of the process.
Introduction
Open-Loop Control Systems
utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desired
response.

Closed-Loop Control
Systems utilizes feedback to
compare the actual output to
the desired output response.

Multivariable Control System

History

Greece (BC) – Float regulator mechanism

Holland (16th Century)– Temperature regulator

Watt’s Flyball Governor

(18th century)
History

Water-level float regulator

History
History
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control and
1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed.
Present and on-going research fields. Recent application of modern control theory
includes such non-engineering systems such as biological, biomedical, economic and
socio-economic systems
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Examples of Modern Control Systems

(a) Automobile
steering control
system.
(b) The driver uses
the difference
between the actual
and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a
controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
The Future of Control Systems
The Future of Control Systems
Control System Design
Design Example
Design Example
Design Example
Design Example
Design Example
Sequential Design Example
Sequential Design Example
 Transfer Function
• Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input. Consider all
initial conditions to zero.

u(t) y(t)
Plant

If u ( t )  U ( S ) and
y(t )  Y ( S )

• Where  is the Laplace operator.

49
 Why Laplace Transform?
• Using Laplace transform, we can convert many
common functions into algebraic function of complex
variable s.
• For example

 sin t  2
s  2
 at 1
e 
sa
• Where s is a complex variable (complex frequency)
and is given as
s    j 50
 Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• Not only common function can be converted into
simple algebraic expressions but calculus operations
can also be converted into algebraic expressions.
• For example
dx(t )
  sX ( s)  x(0)
dt

2
d x(t ) dx(0)
 2
 s 2
X ( s )  s  x ( 0) 
dt dt
51
 Laplace Transform of Derivatives
• In general

n n
d x(t )
 n
 s X (s)   s x (0)
n n  k ( k 1)

dt k 1

• Where x(0)is the initial condition of the system.

52
Laplace Transform of Integrals

1
  x(t )dt  X ( s )
s
• The time domain integral becomes division by
s in frequency domain.

53
Calculation of the Transfer Function
• Consider the following ODE where y(t) is input of the system and
x(t) is the output.
d 2 x(t ) dy(t ) dx(t )
A C B
• or dt 2 dt dt

Ax' ' (t )  Cy' (t )  Bx' (t )

• Taking the Laplace transform on either sides

A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]

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 Calculation of the Transfer Function

A[ s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x' (0)]  C[ sY ( s )  y(0)]  B[ sX ( s )  x(0)]

• Considering Initial conditions to zero in order to find the transfer

function of the system

As 2 X ( s )  CsY ( s )  BsX ( s )
• Rearranging the above equation

As 2 X ( s )  BsX ( s )  CsY ( s )
X ( s )[ As 2  Bs ]  CsY ( s )
X ( s) Cs C
 
Y ( s ) As  Bs As  B
2
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 Transfer Function
• In general

• Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of

the system.

56
Transfer Function

• When order of the denominator polynomial is greater

than the numerator polynomial the transfer function is
said to be ‘proper’.

• Otherwise ‘improper’

57
Transfer Function

• Transfer function can be used to check

• The stability of the system

• Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the

system

• Response of the system for any given input

60
Stability of Control System
• There are several meanings of stability, in general
there are two kinds of stability definitions in control
system study.

• Absolute Stability

• Relative Stability

61
Stability of Control System

• Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer

function are called ‘poles’.

• The roots of numerator polynomials of a transfer

function are called ‘zeros’.

62
Stability of Control System

• Poles of the system are represented by ‘x’ and zeros

of the system are represented by ‘o’.
• System order is always equal to number of poles of
the transfer function.
• Following transfer function represents nth order plant
(i.e., any physical object).

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Stability of Control System
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”. Hence the name pole
where field is infinite.

• Zero is the frequency at which system becomes 0.

64
 Stability of Control System
• Poles is also defined as “it is the frequency at which
system becomes infinite”.
• Like a magnetic pole or black hole.

65
Relation b/w poles and zeros and frequency response of
the system
• The relationship between poles and zeros and the frequency
response of a system comes alive with this 3D pole-zero plot.

Single pole system

66
Example
• Consider the Transfer function calculated in previous
slides.
X (s) C
G( s )  
Y ( s ) As  B

the denominato r polynomial is As  B  0

• The only pole of the system is

B
s
A

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 Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
• Determine
• Whether the transfer function is proper or improper
• Poles of the system
• zeros of the system
• Order of the system

s3 ii) G( s ) 
s
i) G( s ) 
s( s  2 ) ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)

( s  3) 2 s 2 ( s  1)
iii) G( s )  iv) G( s ) 
2
s( s  10 ) s( s  10 )
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Stability of Control Systems

• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane to check the
stability of the system.
j

LHP RHP

Recall s    j


s-plane

75
Stability of Control Systems

• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the system is said to be
Stable.
• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said to be unstable.
• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be marginally stable.

j

LHP RHP

s-plane
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Stability of Control Systems
• For example
C
G( s )  , if A  1, B  3 and C  10
As  B
• Then the only pole of the system lie at

pole  3
j

LHP RHP

X 
-3

s-plane
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 Examples
• Consider the following transfer functions.
 Determine whether the transfer function is proper or improper
 Calculate the Poles and zeros of the system
 Determine the order of the system
 Draw the pole-zero map
 Determine the Stability of the system

s3 ii) G( s ) 
s
i) G( s ) 
s( s  2 ) ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)

( s  3) 2 s 2 ( s  1)
iii) G( s )  iv) G( s ) 
2
s( s  10 ) s( s  10 )
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The Other Definition of Stability
• The system is said to be stable if for any bounded
input the output of the system is also bounded
(BIBO).
• Thus for any bounded input the output either
remain constant or decrease with time.

u(t) overshoot
y(t)
1
Plant 1
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
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The Other Definition of Stability
• If for any bounded input the output is not bounded
the system is said to be unstable.

u(t)
y(t)
1
e at
Plant
t
t
Unit Step Input
Output
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BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example

Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s)   G2 ( s)  
U ( s) s  3 U ( s) s  3
Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map
4 4
unstable
3
stable 3

2 2

1 1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis Real Axis
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example

Y ( s) 1 Y ( s) 1
G1 ( s)   G2 ( s)  
U ( s) s  3 U ( s) s  3

1 Y (s)
1 1 1 Y (s) 1
 G1 ( s )    1
 G2 ( s)   1
 1
U ( s) s3 U (s) s 3
 y (t )  e 3t u (t )  y (t )  e3t u (t )
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• For example

3t
y(t )  e u (t ) y (t )  e3t u (t )
12
exp(-3t)*u(t) x 10 exp(3t)*u(t)
1 12

10
0.8

8
0.6
6
0.4
4

0.2
2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
BIBO vs Transfer Function
• Whenever one or more than one poles are in RHP the
solution of dynamic equations contains increasing
exponential terms.

• That makes the response of the system unbounded

and hence the overall response of the system is
unstable.
Viewpoints of analyzing control system behavior

• Routh-Hurwitz ( s    j )
• Root locus ( s    j )
• Bode diagram (plots) ( s  j )
• Nyquist plots ( s  j )
• Nicols plots ( s  j )
• Time domain

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 r (t )  A sin t y (t )  B sin( t   )
L.T.I system

Magnitude: B Phase: 
A
r (t ) y (t )
G(s)
＋
－ Steady state response
H(s)
Y ( s) G(s)

R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
s    j  s  j

Magnitude: G ( j ) Phase: G( j )

1  G ( j ) H ( j ) [1  G ( j ) H ( j )]
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 Logarithmic coordinate

2 2
Decade : dec  log 10 Octave : oct  log 2
1 1
dB


1 2 3 4 10 20 100

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 Y ( s) k ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 ) 

R( s ) ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( s 2  as  b) 

GH (dB)
Case I : k

Magnitude:

0.1 1 10
k dB  20 log k (dB)
GH
Phase: 180 0

 0 o 900
,k  0
k   o 
180 ,k  0

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Case II : 1
sp
GH (dB)
Magnitude: p2

1 p 1
( j ) p
 20 p log  (dB) 
dB 0.1 1 10

GH
Phase:

1 900

( j ) p
 (90o )  p
p 1

 900
p2
 180 0
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Case III :
sp
p2
GH (dB) p 1
Magnitude:

( j ) p
dB
 20 p log  (dB) 
0.1 1 10

GH
Phase: 0
p2
180
0
p 1
90
( j )  (90 )  p 
p o

 900
 180 0
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 a 1
Case IV : or ( s  1) 1
( s  a) a
a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j ) 1  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  [20 log   20 log a] 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  0  tan
0


a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a
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  a     GH   tan 1   90o 101
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 ( s  a) 1
Case V : or ( s  1)
a a a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j )  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  20 log   20 log a 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  tan

a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a
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  a     GH  tan 1   90o 102
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  n2
Case VI : T ( s)  2
s  2n s   n2
 n2 2n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
( n   2 )  2 jn ( n   2 )
2 2


2
1 n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
 2   2
(1  ( ) )  j 2 1 ( )
n n n

  
 1 ,  1
 0 ,
n
  n  0 0

   
T ( j )    20 log( 2 ) ,  1 T ( j )    90 , 1
0

 n  180o  n
    
  40 log( ) ,  1 ,  1
  n  n n
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   n

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Example : 50( s  2)
T ( s) 
s( s  10)

1 s  2 10
T ( s )  10( )( )( )
s 2 s  10

Example : page 6-24

Example : page 6-28

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 MATLAB Method
k
kGH( s) 
s(1  0.5s)(1  0.1s)

g1=zpk([],[0 –2 -10],[1])
bode(g1) g1
g2

k (3s  9)
kGH ( s) 
s 4  s 3  s 2  15s g2

n=[-3 -9] g1
m=[1 –1 –1 –15 0]
g2=tf(n,m)
bode(g1,g2)

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Identification

15 150
F ( s )  16
s  15 s  150

Example 6-39

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 k ( s  z1 ) 
Minimum phase system T ( s)  n , zi  0, pi  0
s ( s  p1 ) 
Type 0 : (i.e. n=0)
0dB/dec
GH (dB)
k p p1
T (s) 
( s  p1 ) A


20 log K p  A 0.1 p1 p1 10p1

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Type I : (i.e. n=1)

k v p1
T ( s)  GH (dB) -20dB/dec
s ( s  p1 )
A

20 log Kv  A 0
10p1

0.1 p1 1 p1

Kv
20 log  0dB -40dB/dec
j 0
 0  kv
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Type 2 : (i.e. n=2)
-40dB/dec

k a p1
T ( s)  2 GH (dB)
s ( s  p1 )
A

20 log K a  A
0

0.1 p1 1 p1 10p1

Ka
20 log  0dB -60dB/dec
( j 0 ) 2

0  ka
2

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 Relative stability
A transfer function is called minimum phase when all the poles and
zeros are LHP and non-minimum-phase when there are RHP poles
or zeros.

Minimum phase system Stable

The gain margin (GM) is the distance on the bode magnitude plot from
the amplitude at the phase crossover frequency up to the 0 dB point.
GM=-(dB of GH measured at the phase crossover frequency)

The phase margin (PM) is the distance from -180 up to the phase at the
gain crossover frequency. PM=180+phase of GH measured at the gain
crossover frequency
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 Open loop transfer function : G ( s) H ( s)
Closed-loop transfer function : 1  G(s) H (s)

Open loop Stability  poles of G ( s ) H ( s ) in LHP

Im

Closed-loop Stability  RHP

poles of G ( s ) H (in
s ) left side of (-1,0)
Re
(1,0) (0,0)

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  0dB
GH (dB) (1,0)  
 180 0

g  Gain crossover frequency: g

G.M.>0 phase crossover frequency: p

GH
180 0
0
Stable system
90

 900
P.M.>0 p
 180 0

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GH (dB)
G.M.<0
Unstable system
g


GH
180 0 Stable system
900

 900
p
 180 0

P.M.<0
Unstable system

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