HISTORY

 The first recorded manufacturer

of soap was in 600 B.C.
 A soap like material found in clay
cylinders during the excavation
of ancient Babylon is evidence
that soap making was known as
early as 2800 B.C.
 The Ebers Papyrus, a medical
document from about 1500 B.C.,
describes combining animal and
vegetable oils with alkaline salts
to form soap-like material used
for treating skin diseases, as well
as for washing.
 Soap got its name,
according to an ancient
Roman legend, from
Mount Sapo, where
animals were sacrificed.
 Rain washed a mixture
of melted animal fat or
tallow, and wood ashes
down into the clay soil
along the Tiber river.
Women found out that
this clay mixture(soap)
made their wash cleaner
with much less effort.
HISTORY OF SOAP MAKING
 Soap making was established craft in Et6urope by the 7th
century. Vegetable and animals oils were used with ashes of
plants along with fragrance.
 Italy, Spain and France were early centers of soap
manufacturing due to their ready supply of raw materials
such as oil from olive trees.
 The soap business was good that in 1622, King James I
granted monopoly to a soap maker for $100000 a year.
 19th century, soap was heavily taxed as a luxury item in
several countries. When high tax was removed, soap
became available to ordinary people and cleanliness
standards improved.
 A major step forward large scale commercial soap
making occurred in 1971 when a French chemist,
Nicholas Leblanc patented process for making soda
ash or sodium carbonate , from common salt.
 20 years later the science of modern soap making was
born with the discovery by Michael Eugene Chevreul,
the chemical nature and relationship of fats, glycerine
and fatty acids.
 1800’s ammonia process which used common table salt
to make soda ash. Solvays process
 1850 soap making one of the North Americas fastest
growing industries. Its broad availability changed soap
from a luxury item to an everyday necessity.
SOAP
 Soap a cleansing agent created by the chemical
reaction of fatty acid with an alkali metal hydroxide.
 Water soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids
 Made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids by treating
them chemically with a strong alkali.

COMPONENTS
 By both cost and volume are oils, caustic and perfumes
COMPOSITION
The typical composition of a couple classes of commercial soap are:

 TALLOW SOAP:
40-45% oleate
25-30% palmitate
15-20% stearate

 Coconut oil soaps( even more impure):

45-50% varoius C12 carboxylates,
16-20% various C14 carboxylates,
8-10% various C16 carboxylates,
5-6% oleate,
10-15% various C12 or shorter carboxylates
MICELLES – SOAP MOLECULES
 A soap molecule has two ends with different
properties:

1. Hydrophobic - a long hydrocarbon part ( its

dissolves in hydrocarbon)
2. Hydrophilic – a short ionic part containing COO-
Na+ . ( it dissolves in water)
MECHANISM OF SOAP
Raw materials
 Fats and oils - used in soap making come from animal
or plant sources.
 Alkali salt– soluble salt of an alkali metal like sodium
or potassium. Originally the alkalis used in soap
making were obtained from the ashes of plants, but
they are now made commercially. Today, the term
alkali describes a substance that chemically is a base (
Opposite of an acid).
 Like: NaOH, KOH
Soap manufactures:
 soap is produced industrially in four basic steps:

1. Saponification- mixture of tallow(animal fat) and

coconut oil is mixed with sodium hydroxide and
heated.
2. Glycerine Removal- glycerine is more valuable than
soap, so most of it is removed. Some is left in the
soap to help make it soft and smooth.
3. Soap Purification- any remaining sodium hydroxide is
neutralized with a weak acid such as citric acid and two
thirds of the water removed.

4. finishing- additives such as preservatives, color and

perfume are added and mixed with soap and its shaped
into bars for sale.
Process flow chart(soap)
Classification of soap
 Cheaper Toilet soaps
 Curd soap
 Castile soap
 Medicinal soap
 Sulphur soap
 Tar soap
 Transparent soap
 Liquid soap
PLANT VIDEO
SOAP
ADVANTAGES
- Very effective as a bactericide
- It will form gels, emulsify oil and lower the surface
tension of water
- Excellent everyday cleaning agent
- Good biodegradability
DISADVANTAGES
- Oils and perfume are immiscible in water and if spilled
create havoc, although the oils do solidify at room
temperature.

- When used in hard water, soap can produced a scum.

DETERGENTS
 Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain benzene
sulphuric acids
 Uses a synthetic surfactants in place of the metal fatty acid
salts used in soaps
 Both in powder and liquid form.
 Sold as a laundry powders, hard surface cleansers,
dishwashing liquids, fabric conditioners and etc.

 Primarily surfactants, which could be produced easily from

petrochemicals. (surfactants – surface active agents)
Raw materials
 Petrochemicals
Composition
TYPICAL INGREDIENTS:
- Sodium carbonate
- Sodium bicarbonate
- Sodium perborate
- Colored beads
- Anti foaming powder
- Polymers that release stains
- Polymer that prevent new stains
- Sodium silicates
Trivia
PROCESS FLOWCHART
Detergent manufacture (powder)
 Step 1- slurry making
 Step 2- spray drying
 Step 3- post dosing
Detergent manufacture (Liquid)
 Step 1- soap premix manufacture
 Step 2- ingredient mixing
 Step 3- enzyme addition
Final step
FINISHING - additives such as preservatives, color and
perfume are added .

PACKAGING
PLANT VIDEO
DETREGENTS
ADVANTAGES
- Biodegradable
- Do not decompose in acidic medium
- As detergents are derived from petroleum they save on
natural vegetable oils.
- Can lather well even in hard water.
DISADVANTAGES
- Have tendency to produce stable foams in rivers that
extend over several hundred meters of the river waters.
- Danger to aquatic life
- Inhibit oxidation
Products (soap and detergents)
FOUR GENERAL CATEGORIES
- Personal cleaning – include bar soaps, gels, liquid soaps
and heavy hand cleaners.
- Laundry- available as liquids, powders, gels, sticks, spray,
pumps, sheets and bars.
- Dishwashing – include detergents for hand machine
dishwashing as well as some specialty products. (liquids,
gels, powders, solids)
- Household cleaning- available as liquids, gels, powders,
sheets and pads for use on painted, plastic, metal,
porcelain, glass and other surfaces and on washable floor
coverings.
Soap and detergents
SOAP DETERGENTS
- They are metal salts of - These are sodium salts of long
long chain higher fatty chains hydrocarbons like
acids. alkyl sulphates.
- Prepared from vegetable
- Prepared from hydrocarbons
oils and animal fats.
of petroleum or coal.
- Cannot be used
effectively in hard water - Do not produce insoluble
as they produces scum. precipitates in hard water.
i.e insoluble precipates They are effective in soft, hard
of Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ or salt water.
etc. - More soluble in water.
Fertilizer
 Fertilizer- any material of natural or synthetic origin
that is applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually
leaves) to supply one or more plants. Nutrients
essential to the growth of plants.

 NPK- NITROGEN PHOSPHOROUS POTASSIUM

 Natural Fertilizer- Organic Fertilizer- Synthetic

Fertilizer – Chemical Fertilizer
Why do plants needed fertilizers?
Because most soils does not provide the essential
nutrients required optimum growth.

FOR EXAMPLE:
NITROGEN
 Helps in making protein
 Helps in producing new tissues
 Its deficiency causes yellowing of leaves
PHOSPHOROUS
 Stimulates root growth.
 Helps plants set buds and flowers.
 Improves vitality and increases seed size.

POTASSIUM
 It helps the plants make carbohydrates
 Provides disease resistance
 Its deficiency leads to formation of spots on leaves and
fruits.
The micronutrients are also essential
EXAMPLE

 Calcium- used by cell membrane to neutralize toxic

materials.
- Also helps in improving strength.
- Helps to bind organic and inorganic particles together.
 Magnesium- helps in making chlorophyll.
 Sulphur- helps in making proteins.
 Other micronutrients are Boron, copper and iron.
Raw materials
 Primary fertilizers include substances derived from
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Various raw
materials are used to produce these compounds.
 When ammonia is used as the nitrogen source in a
fertilizer, one method of synthetic production requires
the use of natural air and gas.
 The phosphorous component is made using sulfur,
coal and phosphate.
 The potassium source comes from potassium chloride,
a primary component of potash.
Second Nutrients:
- it is added to some fertilizers to help make them more
effective.
 Calcium is obtained from limestone, which contains
calcium carbonate and others such as calcium
sulphate, calcium magnesium carbonate.
 The magnesium source in fertilizers is derivedc from
dolomite.
 Sulfur is another material that is mined and added to
fertilizers.
 Other mined materials include iron from ferrous
sulfate, copper and boron from boron oxide.
Fertilizer Manufactures
 Granulating
- Is act or process of forming or crystallizing into grains.
Granules typically have a size range between 0.2 and 4.0
mm depending on their subsequent use.

 Blending
- The different types of particles are blended together in
appropriate proportions to produce a composite fertilizer.

 Bagging
- Fertilizers are typically supplied to farmers in large bags.
PLANT VIDEO
Leading companies
 Coromandel international Ltd.
 Gojarat state fertilizers and chemicals
 Rashtriya chemicals and fertilizers Ltd.
Organic fertilizer
- Are derived from the animal matter, animal
excreta(manure), human excreta and vegetable
manner.

- Naturally occuring organic fertilizers include animal

wastes from meat processing, peat, manure, slurry and
guano.
ADVANTAGE:
 Low cost because it can be prepared locally
 Food produced is free from harmful chemicals.
 Easily biodegradable and do not cause pollution
 Help maintain soil structure , fertility and increase
soil’s nutrient-holding capacity.
PLANT VIDEO:
Bio-organic fertilzers
Is the fertilizer with the function of both microbial
fertilizer abd organic fertilizer and organic fertilizer.

Bacterias that help to produce biofertilizers are –

rhizobium,azotobacter, azospirillum and acetobacter

it is sold through cooperative societies and also

distributed to the farmers as one of the component of
critical input package(CIP) to promote intrgrated used
of nutrients.
ADVANTAGES
 Low cost
 Effective
 Environment friendly
 Renewable source of plant nutrients
 Add nutrients to soil
 Increase fertility and crop production
International organizations
 The fertilizer association of India
 International fertilizer industry association
 International development center.
The future
Fertilizer research is currently focusing:
- Reducing the harmful environmental impacts
- Finding new, less expensive sources of fertilizers
- To make fertilizers more environmentally
- New source of fertilizers are also being investigated. It
has been found that sewage sludge contains many
nutrients that are needed for a good fertilizer.