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AIR COMPRESSOR
 AIR:
Air is an expansive substance and dangerous when used at high pressures.

For this reason:

Most applications are confined to things requiring low pressures 10bar or lowe

The industrial uses for high pressure air up to 100 bar

History of compressed air:
10,000 BC:
The first use of compressed air was when ancient man blew on
embers to start a fire. Thus the first “compressor” was human lungs
(capacity 100 1/min, pressure 0.02-0.08 bar(g)).
Introduction to compressors:

 An air compressor is a mechanical device that

increases the pressure of air by reducing volume.

 Air is compressible, the compressor reduces the

volume of air and induces pressure in the air

 An air compressor converts electrical energy into

kinetic energy in the form of the air
Application of compressed air:

For operating pneumatic tools such as drills, screw drivers,

hammers, chisels

For pneumatic cranes

For pneumatic brakes of automobiles, railways and presses

For agricultural accessories such as dusters and

sprayers
For drive of CNC machine tools
For pneumatic conveying of materials
For pneumatic gauging, inspection and low cost
automation systems
Applications of compressed air :

Low compressed air ( P1.00 MN/m2)

Paint spraying

Boosting of internal combustion engines

Conveying materials like

 sand

Concrete

Powdered fuel along a pipe line

Medium compressed air ( P = 1 to 8 MN/m2)

Gas turbine
Air crafts

High compressed air ( P = 8 to 10 MN/m2)

 Producing air blast injection of fuel

 Driving a wide variety of pneumatic tools
 Pneumatic brakes for locomotives

Compressed air is also used

Refrigeration
Cooling large building
Pumping water
Despatch tubes of general post office.
Classification of air compressor:
 Air compressors are classified according to
method of energy transfer and pressure
generation i.e. positive displacement and
dynamic compressors

 Positive displacement compressors work on the

principle of increasing the pressure of air by
reducing the volume of air in an enclosed
chamber
Dynamic compressors works on the principle of
imparting the energy by rotating vanes of impeller
on air flowing through casing that increases
pressure in air
What is Compressor ? PD: Operate by trapping a specific volume of
air and forcing it into a smaller volume. Sliding Vane
Compressor is a device which is Centrifugal: Operate by accelerating the air
used to increase the pressure and converting the energy to pressure
of air from low pressure to high Artificially cooled, Liquid Piston
pressure by using some pressure ratio more
external energy than 1.15, fluid Rotary Helical
• For filling the air in tube of medium - Gas
vehicles
Lobe
• In automobile service station Intermittent
flow / positive
to clean vehicles. displacement
• For spray painting in paint (PD) Screw
industries.
• In vehicle to operate air Reciprocating
Mechanical
brakes. Piston
Compressor
• For cleaning workshop
Radial /
machines. Centrifugal

• For supercharging of an IC
engines. Dynamic Mixed

• For operation of pneumatic Continuous flow

tools i.e. rock drills, vibrators
Ejector Axial
etc.
 Hydraulic
Cyhnder

• Quiet operation
• High volume of
air, steady flow.
• Lower energy
cost , small size
• Suitable for
continuous Input Shaft
operation (24/7),
• low efficiency Low mass flow rate,
• Low pressure Service life longer,
ratio high pressure ratios,
M,ddle,� Pf0$5Uro (22barG 320psrG) senes bigger size, and is
Melor applcaoon: Gas turbine fuel eas boosters
Refrlgeratocs relatively cheap. Reciprocating
Heat�
Ofl and gas satherlng tOl'llP'OHors
LNG bof off&as comPressor.s Rotary – screw compressor
Impeller (centrifugal compressor) Turbine stator
Pressure-cabin attached to turbine via main shaft blades

Muff around jel pipe

supplying hot air for
cabin heating
Pneumatic
system air
compressor
(wheel brakes Jet pipe
OUT IN etc)

Tail cone (turbine

fairing)
Air inlets
(supplied from Main shaft
intakes in air• connecting
craft wing root) impeller
IN and turbine

Ejector Threaded T Fitting Centrifugal

Process plant optimization. Gas compression. compressor:
Production boosting. Jet engine
cutaway
showing the
centrifugal
Centrifugal compressor is widely used in chemical and Starter motor (not fitted)
mounting
Fuel lines to injectors
inside combustion
16 Combustion chambers
(inside flame cans) arranged compressor
around engine
petroleum refinery industry for specifies services. chambers
and other parts
Definitions of Compressor
Compression ratio:- It is defined as the ratio of volume of air before compression to the
volume of air after compression.
Compressor capacity:- It is the quantity of air actually delivered by a compressor in m3/minute
or m3/sec.
Free air Delivered(FAD):- It is the volume of air delivered by compressor under the compressor
intake conditions ( i.e. temperature and pressure ).
Swept Volume:- The volume displaced or swept by piston when it moves between top dead
center and bottom dead center.
Clearance volume:- it is the difference between the total volume and the swept volume,
basically the gap that remains between the piston head and the cylinder head when at top
dead center.
Efficiencies:
Volumetric efficiency:-
It is the ratio of actual volume of the FAD at standard atmospheric condition in one delivery
stroke (Actual air intake) to the swept volume (theoretical air intake) by the piston during
the stroke.
Isothermal efficiency:-
It is defined as the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) (i.e. required input power at isothermal
process) done to the indicated power (IP) or actual work done.
Mechanical efficiency:-
It is the ratio of indicated power (IP) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
Overall efficiency:-
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to the shaft(Brake) Power (Pshaft).
 The Analysis Objectives

• To calculate air pressure and temperature before

and after compression process
• To calculate indicated work/power
• To obtain compressor efficiency
• To calculate free air delivery rate (kg/s or m3/s)
Reciprocating Compressor COOL.ING FW1 � JNLET PORT

N..ET -............_"'
The primary components of a VALVE

typical reciprocating compressor DISCHARGE

TUBE
system can be seen in Figures.
The compression cylinders, also
known as stages, of which a
particular design may have from
one to six or more, provide
GI\LJG£
confinement for the process gas
during compression. A piston is
driven in a reciprocating action
to compress the gas.
Arrangements may be of single-
or dual-acting design. (In the
dual-acting design, compression
occurs on both sides of the
piston during both the advancing
and retreating stroke.) Some
dual-acting cylinders in high-
pressure applications will have a
piston rod on both sides of the
piston to provide equal surface
area and balance loads.
Reciprocating Compressor COOL.ING FW1 � JNLET PORT

N..ET -............_"'
Tandem cylinder arrangements VALVE

help minimize dynamic loads by DISCHARGE

TUBE
locating cylinders in pairs,
connected to a common
crankshaft, so that the
movements of the pistons
oppose each other. Gas
GI\LJG£
pressure is sealed and wear of
expensive components is
minimized through the use of
disposable piston rings and
rider bands respectively. These
are formed from comparatively
soft metals relative to piston
and cylinder/liner metallurgy or
materials such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
 Discharge valve
Reciprocating Compressor Suction line Valve plate Discharge line
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of air is
drawn into a cylinder, it is trapped, and compressed Head
by piston and then discharged into the discharge line. Suction
The cylinder valves control the flow of air through the valve
cylinder; these valves act as check valves.
Rings
Single – Acting compressor
Connecting
It is a compressor that has one discharge per Rod Piston
revolution of crankshaft.
Double – Acting Compressor
It is a compressor that completes two discharge
strokes per revolutions of crankshaft. Most heavy-
duty compressors are double acting. Crankshaft

Multi-staging :Reduction in power required to drive the

compressor.
 Better mechanical balance of the whole unit and
uniform torque.
 Increase in volumetric efficiency.
 Reduced leakage loss.
 Less difficulty in lubrication due to low working
temperature.
 Lighter cylinders can be used.
 Cheaper materials can be used for construction as
the operating temperature is lower.
 Front Face View
Dial weight
Manometer Reading (Kg)
Reading P2 Intercooler
(orifice) 1st Stage T2
cylinder T3 2nd Stage cylinder Mechanical
guard dynamometer
T1,
P1
Silencer
cum filter
Air Box Unloader
valve Thermo Motor (without
meter grouting i.e. Stand/
Crank Case: P3 support)
Splash type
Safety Valve
Lubricating Pressure
Oil indicator control
Switch Main Switch
Receiver
Tank

Motor (without grouting) to produce opposite torque for mechanical dynamometer.

Water outlet
Unloader valve: to keep the starting compressor operation in ambient pressure.
Drain Cock
 Back Face View

Motor RPM
Compressor RPM
Classification of air compressor:
 According to number of stages
Single stage, double stage, three stage of multiple stage
 According to action
Single acting or double acting
 According to position of cylinder w.r.t. crankshaft
Cylinders inline, vertical, radial position, V-type cylinder
arrangement
• According to prime mover
Electric motor drive or IC engine drive, Gas turbine
drives
• According to cooling medium
Air cooled, water cooled air compressors
Based on number of stages:
Generally, the number of stages depend upon the maximum delivery
pressure.
Normally maximum compression ratio of 5 is realized in single stage
compressors.
For compression ratio more than 5 the multistage compressors are used.

Maximum delivery pressures:

Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.

Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar

Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.

Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar

Based on Capacity of compressors:

Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or

less

Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15

to 5 m3/s.

High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s

Based on highest pressure developed:

Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure upto 1 bar

High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10

bar
Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than
10 bar.
Working principle of reciprocating compressors:

Single stage Compressor Two stage Compressor

Single stage reciprocating air compressor:
When piston starts moving downwards, the pressure
inside the cylinder falls below atmospheric pressure
that opens suction valve.

The pressure of the air in the cylinder rises during

compression and at the end of compression, delivery
valve opens and discharges the compressed air into
the receiver tank.
Reciprocation compressor with storage tank:
Double stage reciprocating air compressor:
Line Sketch of reciprocation air compressor:

Reciprocating Compressor has

piston
cylinder

inlet valve
exit valve

connecting rod,

crank

piston pin

crank pin and crank shaft

 Thermodynamic Analysis:

Suction stroke ( a -1):

The piston moves outwards the inlet valve opens and the air at atmospheric conditions
is sucked into the cylinder

During the operation:

There is no exchange of heat with the surroundings
Temperature remains constant
Mass of air in the cylinder increase
Flow work is done by air

Compression stroke ( 1-2-b)

adiabatic compressor ( isentropic)

 isothermal compression
 polytropic compressor
Thermodynamic Analysis:
 Work:
The amount of work done on the air will depend upon the nature of the compression
curve.

Isentropic:
If the compression occurs very rapidly in a non-conducting cylinder so that there is
no heat transfer, the compression will be practically isentropic

Isothermal:
If it is carried out slowly so that the heat of the compression is extracted from the
air by the jacket cooling water, the compression will approach isothermal.

Polytropic:
However, in actual practice:

Neither of these conditions can be fulfilled and the actual compression will be
between isentropic and isothermal
Reciprocating Compressor
Assumptions
The working fluid is assumed as a perfect gas and P-v-T can be calculated by using simple equation of state.
Usually, these assumptions are used to calculate estimate pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature, T, of
the working fluid.
PV  mRT PV / T  K1 PV n  K 2 c b
 Compressor without clearance volume
 Compressor with clearance volume
 Multistage compressors d
a
Compressor without clearance volume
The Cycle of Operation
• The cycle of operation of a reciprocating
air-compressor is best shown on a
pressure-volume (p-V) diagram.
• It is known as an indicator diagram for
the compressor.
• The cycle comprises of three processes:
d - a: An induction stroke
a - b: A compression stroke
b - c: A delivery stroke
 T p2
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without 2”
p1

clearance volume 2
Description of the Processes 2’
1
d – a: The induction stroke s

Intake valve opens, while exhaust valve closed.

Atmospheric air is drawn into the cylinder at constant c b
pressure p1 and temperature T1. Ideally, there is no
heat loss to the surrounding from the air.
a – b: The compression stroke d
Both intake and exhaust valves closed. The air is a
compressed according to a polytropic law pV n =
constant. Its pressure is increased from p1 to p2. The
temperature is also increased from T1 to T2.
b – c: The delivery stroke
The intake valve closed while the exhaust valve opens.
The compressed air is pushed out of the cylinder at
constant pressure p2 and temperature T2. There is no
heat loss from the air to the surroundings.
During compression, due to its excess temperature above the compressor surrounding, the air will
lose some heat. Thus neglecting the internal effect of friction the index is less than ɣ (i.e. <1.4), the
adiabatic index. If n= ɣ =1.4, area under curve is biggest, i.e. reversible adiabatic or entropy constant.
Since work must be put into an air compressor to run it, every effort is made to reduce this amount of
work input. It is observed that if compression is along isothermal, work done is less (though in practical
it is not possible). Isothermal is attempted by cooling the compressor either by adding cooling fan of
water jacket.
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Indicated work per cycle
The area under the p-V diagram represents the net or
indicated work done on the air per cycle. c b
Indicated work / cycle = area a-b-c-d = area 1-2-3-4-1
=area under 1-2+area under 2-3 – area under 4-1
p2V2 p1V1 
   p2V2  p1V1 This work must d
 n 1  a
be done on
 n
W    p2V2  p1V1  compressor
 n 1


Assuming the air as a perfect gas,

p1V1  mRT1 p2V2  mRT2
where m is the mass of air induced and delivered per
cycle, R is the universal gas constant, where R = 0.287
kJ/kgK.
Substituting, 2
W12  pV n  C
Indicated work / cycle W   n  mR T2  T1
 n  1 

1
pdV ,

  C  V  n dV 
2 1
CV 1 n
 CV
2 1
1 1 n
1 n

2 2 2 1 1 1
11 n
 pV n
V 1 n  p V n V 1 n 
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Analysis of Cycle
Other form of the equation for indicated work/ cycle is
 n1

 
W    mRT  2
1
n p n

 1   b
 n  1  c
 1
p
 n1

 n 
 2 p  n

W    p V1 1  1
 n 1  p1  d
 
 a
Indicated Power (IP):
The indicated power (IP) is the work done on the air per unit
time. The mass flow per unit time ṁ is often used to compute
the work done/time or indicated power.
IP  
n 
  m R T2  T1
 n 1 
Mechanical efficiency:- 
It is the ratio of indicated power to the shaft Power.
Shaft power = indicated power + friction power
Shaft power is the power supplied by the electric motor to compressor.
For Polytropic process
Motor efficiency:- p1V1n  p 2V 2n
p1V1 p2V2
It is the ratio of shaft power to the input Power. 
Input power is the electric power supplied to the electric motor T1 T2
 1
 n  n 1     n 1
V1 p n
 2  
2
T   p 2
2  T   V
2
V2  p1  T1  p1  T1  V1 
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor without
clearance volume
Isothermal efficiency:-
It is the ratio of isothermal power (Piso) to indicated power (IP)
Isothermal Power:
Piso  m RT1 ln( p2 / p1
)
 Effect of the clearance
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
volume is to reduce the
clearance volume volume actually aspirated.
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c
35% are also common.

Processes
d – a: Induction process
The inlet valve opens. Fresh atmospheric air is d a
induced into the cylinder at constant pressure p1
and temperature T1. The volume of air induced is
(Va – Vd). Ideally, there is no heat transfer from
the air to the surroundings.
a – b: Compression process
Both valves closed. The induced air is compressed according to the polytropic law of pVn
= const., until the pressure and temperature increases to p2 and T2, respectively. Ideally,
there is no heat transfer from the air to the surroundings of cylinder.

Clearance volume:
 Give a mechanical freedom to the moving parts
 Reduce noise and vibration during operation
 Prevent damage to moving components
 Deliver valve open,
Vc, residual
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with gas
compress gas starts
delivering from the
clearance volume cylinder
Analysis of Cycle
It is a spacing between the top of the piston and the valve’s heads when As piston
the piston is at the end of the delivery stroke. Good quality machines has b begin intake
a clearance volume of about 6%. But compressors with clearance of 30 – c stroke,
35% are also common. residual gas
Because of presence of clearance
volume , volumetric efficiency is expand
Processes always less than unity, between 60% according to
to 85 %. pvn=const
b – c: Delivery process
The exhaust valve opens. The compressed air is
delivered out of the cylinder at constant pressure d a
p2 and temperature T2. Ideally, there is no heat
transfer from the air to the surroundings.

c – d: Expansion process
The piston begins the induction stroke. The compressed air occupying the clearance volume
Vc expands according to the polytropic law of pV n = const., until the pressure and
temperature fall to p1 and T1, respectively. Ideally, there is no heat transfer from the air to
the surroundings.
Note: At the end of the delivery stroke, the clearance volume Vc is filled with compressed air
at pressure p2 and temperature T2.
It is the ratio between FAD at standard atmospheric
V V condition in one delivery stroke (Actual air intake) to the
Volumetric efficiency= 1 4 swept volume (theoretical air intake)
V1  V3
Reciprocating Compressor Compressor with
clearance volume
Assuming polytropic index to be same
for both compression and clearance
expansion Indicated work / cycle = b
n 1
 
c
  n1

 n  p    p 
p1V1  2  1   p4V4  3  1
n
n n
W   
 n  1   p1   n 1  p4 
    
But p4=p1, p3=p2 therefore 
 n1

  
W   
n  2 p
 p1 V1 V4    1
n

 n  1 p1 d a
 

 n
W   m a  m d R T 2  T1 
 n 1
 
Volumetric efficiency =
V1  V4 V1  V4 The greater is the clearance ratio
 
V1  V3 Vs through a reciprocating
compressor, the greater will be the
 1  k  k (V1 / V2 Where, k=clearance ratio = V3/(V1-V3)=Vc/Vs
) 1 k  k( p / p )1/ n Ratio has a value 4% - 10 % effect of the clearance volume
2 1 since the clearance air will expand
 1 k  k( p3 / p4 )
1/ n
through greater volume before
intake condition is reached.
 Reciprocating Compressor
Actual p-V (indicator diagram for single stage compressor
At point 4, the clearance air actually reduced to atmospheric pressure.
The inlet valve in practice will not open. Reason : (i) inlet valve inertia (ii)
c b
there must be a pressure difference across the inlet valve in order to
move it. Thus pressure drop away until the valve is forced off its seat.
Some valve bounce will then set in (wavy line) Therefore intake will
become near enough steady at some pressure below atmospheric
pressure. The negative pressure difference, i.e. intake depression settles
naturally.
Similar situation occurs at point 2. There is a constant pressure rise,
followed by valve bounce and the pressure then settles at some pressure
d a
above external delivery pressure (i.e. Receiver tank pressure).
Other small effects at inlet and delivery
would be gas inertia and turbulence.
So, practical effects are responsible for
the addition of the two small ripple
negative work areas shown in figure.
There are certain disadvantages to increase the delivery pressure to a high value.
When the delivery pressure is increased to p3, the volume of the fresh air induced is
reduced from (Va – Vd) to (Va – Vd’), and so on, whereas swept volume Vs is remains
constant. Since the volumetric efficiency is given by
ƞvol = (Va – Vd )/ Vs
the volumetric efficiency decreases with increasing delivery pressure.
This situation can be improved by performing
multistage compression process.
Vc
Vs
Reciprocating Compressor
pd or
Multistage compression
Indicated power for stage 1.
 n1

 n  
mRTa   1
pi n
W 
 n  1  p 
  1

Indicated power for stage 2.

Ta”=Tb
 n1

 n    p2  1
n
W  a "  
 n  1
mRT
pi  
 
 With multistage compression, the air can be
cooled as it is being transferred from one
cylinder to the next, by passing it through an ps or
intercooler.
 The process of cooling the air is called the
intercooling process.
 With intercooling process, temperature is
reduced, therefore internal energy of
delivered air reduced. Since energy must
have come from the input energy required to
drive the machine, this results in a decrease
in input work requirement for a given mass
of delivered air. Thus the power supplied to
the compressor can be reduced.

Complexity of machine limits the number of stages.

 Perfect intercooling:
Reciprocating Compressor after initial
compression in the L.P.
Multistage compression (Without Vc) 6’ cylinder with the
consequent
Single stage compressor: W= temperature rise, the
air is cooled in an
 n1
  n 1

 n   p5      intercooler back to its
1   mRT1   1
n
n p 5
n

 n  1  1 1  p    n  1 
pV original temperature,
p1  
    i.e. T2=T1, where point
  
1
n 1 2 lies on isothermal
 p n through point 1.
Deliver temperature, T5  T1  5 
Two stage compressor, p 1 7” 7’

without intercooling: W=
 n1
  n1

 n   p  n
  n   p  n
 Considering clearance volume
 n  1 p1V1  p   1   n  1 p4V4  p  1
4 5
8’
   
    
1 4
Without clearance volume
Deliver temperature same as above……
Two stage compressor,
With perfect intercooling: W= 2453 = Work savings occurs
 
n1
  n1

 n 
 4 p  n
  n 
 3 p  
n

 n  1 p1V1  p  1   n 1p V2  p  1

  
 
1
  2 

 2 
n1 n1
 p  n p n
Deliver temperature, T3  T2  3   T1  3  , where T2  T1
 p2   p2 
 n1 n1

 n    
p1V1  2    3   2 
if T2  T1 , p2V2  p1V1 , p4  p2 p n p n
W   
 n  1   p1
   p2 

 Perfect intercooling:
Reciprocating Compressor 6’ after initial
compression in the L.P.
Multistage compression (Without Vc) cylinder with the
Condition for minimum work done: consequent
temperature rise, the
It is observed that an intermediate pressure p2 air is cooled in an
-->p1, then area 2453 --> 0. Also p2-->p3 , then intercooler back to its
area 2453 --> 0. this means , therefore there original temperature,
i.e. T2=T1, where point
exists an intermediate pressure p2 which makes
area 2453 maximum and n1 W minimum.n1 2 lies on isothermal
7” 7’
For minimum W :  p  n  p3  n must through point 1.
be minimum…….  p    p 
2

 1  2 
 Considering clearance volume

n1 n1
p2 p3 8’
p  p 
d  2   
n n
 3  i.e.
Without clearance volume
 p1 p2
 1   p2 
p
0
dp2

n1
 
n1

     
  
n
2 n  2 p n 2 n p p
W   
3 1
 
 n  1 1 1  p    n  1 1 1  p1 
p V 1 p V 1 
  1
    P3 or Pd
 
 n1
  n 1
T P2 or Pi
    
 1 or  xn p1V1   p(x xn1) 1 , for x stage
2 n p 2n
W  3
 n  1 p1V1  p1 
P1 or Ps
  n  1   p1  
    
 1 1 
p V   5
3 4
 1
Where p(x+1)/p1 is the pressure ratio through compressor at x stage.
Ti or T2
= T3 or Td
 p  
Isothermal power Piso =mRT1 ln  3  , 9 2 1Perfect
 intercooling
 p1 
s
Heat Transferred in intercooler = mc p (T4  T2 )  mc p (T4  T1
Rotary Compressor:
PD type:
(i) Lobe type (Roots blower)
(ii) Vane
(iii) Screw
(iv) Etc.
Continuous Flow Compressor:
(i) Centrifugal
(ii) axial
Centrifugal Compressor
• Centrifugal compressors accelerates the velocity of the gases
(increases kinetic energy) which is then converted into pressure as
the air flow leaves the volute and enters the discharge pipe.
• Deliver much higher flow rates than positive displacement
compressors
• For low pressure ratios (< 4:1), if higher pressure ratio with larger unit
– prefer axial flow compressor
• Usually operate at speeds > 3,000 rpm.
• Smaller length, contaminated atmosphere doesn't affect the
performance
• Disadvantages- larger frontal area and lower maximum efficiency
Basic Components
• Impellers, Vanes, Volutes, Suction Eyes, Discharge lines, Diffuser
Plates, Seals, Shaft, Casing
• Suction Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air first.
• Discharge Vane Tips = Part of the impeller vane that comes into contact with air last
Applications
Most well-known centrifugal compressor applications are gas turbines and
turbochargers.
Either or both axial and centrifugal compressors are used to provide
compressed air to Modern gas turbines which operate on the Brayton cycle. The
types of gas turbines that most often include centrifugal compressors include
turboshaft, turboprop, auxiliary power units, and micro-turbines.
Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal
combustion engines are known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s exhau st
gas and turbo-superchargers if mechanically driven by the engine.
Centrifugal Compressor
Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple
pipe. It may include features such as a valve, stationary
vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure
and temperature instrumentation. Figure 1.
Turbocharger
Centrifugal impeller Construction and
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the Flow of Gases
centrifugal impeller. It is the impeller’s rotating set of vanes (or
Figure 2.
blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This open
is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the impeller
gases can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the
impeller’s increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency
centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling
near the speed of sound. Figure 3.
full
Impellers are designed in many length
configurations including “open” (visible splitter
blades), “covered or shrouded”, “with impeller
splitters”. Most modern high efficiency
impellers use “backsweep” in the blade Figure 4.
shape. Euler’s pump and turbine shrouded
impeller
equation plays an important role in Figure 5. backsweep impeller
understanding impeller performance.
Centrifugal Compressor
Diffuser
The next key component to the
simple centrifugal compressor is
the diffuser. Downstream of the
impeller in the flow path, it is the
diffuser’s responsibility to convert
the kinetic energy (high velocity) of
the gas into pressure by gradually
slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity.
Diffusers can be vane less, vaned or
an alternating combination.
Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers. There are
turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser. Bernoulli’s fluid dynamic
principle plays an important role in understanding diffuser performance.
Collector / Casing
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the
diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull’s horn or a French
horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s
purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a
downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.
Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
 Velocity encountered in the centrifugal compressor are very large, therefore total 1 Q=0
head quantities should be considered while analyzing centrifugal compressor. 2
 Consider, a horizontal passage of varying area through which air is flowing. Applying
steady flow equation to the system we get m2
 V 2
  V  2
m1  u 1 p 1v  1  gz 1  Q  m 2 u 2 p 2v 2  2  gz 2  W m1
2 2
1   
for 1 kg of air flow (assuming no external heat transfer and work done) the expression becomes…
2
V1 V22 u = internal energy, v= volume, p = pressure, V = velocity, h =
u1  p 1v 1  u 2  p 2v 2  enthalpy, cp= specific heat at constant pressure, Q=heat, W=work z1 W=0 z2
2 2
V12 V22 V2 P .v represents the displacement or flow energy.
h1  V12
 h2  V 22
c p T1   c p T2  c p
T   const V2 / 2 represents the kinetic energy.
2 2 2 2 2 g. Z represents the potential energy.
 T is static temperature, measured by thermometer when the thermometer is moving at the air velocity. If moving
air is brought to rest under reversible condition, total KE of air is converted into ‘u’, further heat energy, increasing
the temperature and pressure of the air. This temperature and pressure of the air is known as “stagnation” or
“total head” temperature and pressure and it is denoted by ‘o’.

2 V 2
V 2 po  To   1
c pT  V  c pTo To  T  ho  h  
2 2c p 2 p  T  V2
2c p
 Ideal reversible adiabatic process is called isentropic process (s=const).
But, during the adiabatic compression in a rotary compressor, there is
friction between molecules of air and between air and blade passages,
eddies formation and shocks at entry and exit. These factors cause
internal generation of heat and consequently the maximum temperature
reached would be more than that for adiabatic compression (T01--->T02).
This result in a progressive increase in entropy. Such a process through
adiabatic (no heat transfer) is not isentropic. Again, the heat generated
by friction etc., may be removed continuously with the result that the
process might not involve any entropy change (T01--->T02’). The process
would be isentropic but not adiabatic as heat has been transferred.
Centrifugal Compressor (steady flow)
Isentropic efficiency – ratio of isentropic temperature rise to actual
temperature rise or ratio of isentropic to actual compression work.
T02'  T01 T2'  T1 c p T02  T01  Isentropic Work
'

isen    
T02  T01 T2  T1 c p T02  T01  Actual Work
During compression, work has to be imparted to the impeller (i.e. -ve).
Then the energy balance equation around the impeller will be
V12 V2 2 V012 V02 2
c p T1   c p T2  W c p T01   c p T02  W
2 2 2 2
W  c p T02  T01  Thus work input is the product of specific heat at constant pressure
and temperature rise (for both adiabatic and isentropic process).
Status of P & V during Working Process
inlet at diffuser
Air enters at the eye of the impeller at a mean radius rm with low at impeller
velocity V1 and atmospheric pressure p1. Depending upon the
centrifugal action of the impeller, the air moves radial outwards and
during its movement it is guided by the impeller vanes. The impellers
transfers the energy of the drive to the air causing a rise both static
pressure p2 and temperature T2, and increase in velocity V2. The
work input equals the rise in total temperature. Air now enters the
diverging passage ‘diffuser’ where it is efficiently slow down V3. The
KE is converted into pressure energy with the result that there is a
further rise in static pressure p3. In practice nearly half of the total
pressure is achieved in impeller and remaining part in diffuser. A
pressure ratio 4 : 1 can be achieved with single stage centrifugal
compressor, for higher ratio multistage compressor is used.
Where n= 0 constant pressure process
n = constant volume process
The slope of the compression curve, represented
by the law PVn = C
depends upon the value of the index n.

A large value of n will give comparatively a steeper

curve. The law for an isothermal or hyperbolic
compression is pv = C,
where the value of index n is unity.

The law for an isentropic compression is pv = C.

Since the value of  for air is 1.4,

The isentropic curve will be steeper than isothermal curve

The middle curve (1-2) shows curve, which is obtained in actual practice.

The curve is polytropic PVn = C having a value of n nearly equal to 1.3 for the
water cooled cylinder.
 The isentropic work required to be done per cycle
on the air is represented by the area 4-1-2’-3

The isothermal work done would be represented

by the area 4-1-2"-3

The area 4-1-2"-3 which is evidently less than

the isentropic work done represented by the area
4-1-2-3.

Therefore, it follows that an isothermal compression is economical and efficient,

since less work is required to carry it out, while an isentropic compression requires
more amount of work to be supplied
Compression curve with values of index n between 1 and 1.4 will fall within the
isothermal and isentropic curves.

Thus, it will be seen that the work required for compression and delivery of air
per cycle decreases as the value of n decreases
single-stage compressor without clearance:
Work required to be done on the air W,
per cycle assuming compression
curve to be polytropic,i.e., PVn= C, is
given by area 1-2-3-4
 Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency of compressor is the measure of the deviation from volume
handling capacity of compressor

Ideally the volume of air sucked should be equal to the swept volume of cylinder,
but it is not so in actual case.

Practically the volumetric efficiency lies between 60 to 90%.

Volumetric efficiency depends on ambient pressure and temperature, suction

pressure and temperature, ratio of clearance to swept volume, and pressure limits.

Volumetric efficiency increases with decrease in pressure ratio in compressor.

Volumetric efficiency:
The ratio of the actual volume of the free air at standard atmospheric conditions
discharged in one delivery stroke, to the volume swept by the piston during the
stroke. The standard atmospheric conditions (S.T.P.) is actually taken as pressure of
760 mm Hg (1 01325 bar) and temperature 15‘C in this connection. Thus
Single-stage air compressor with clearance volume:

The clearance space is provided in an actual compressor to safeguard the piston

from striking the cylinder head or cylinder cover.
Clearance volume in compressors varies from 1.5% to 35% depending upon
type of compressor.
Considering clearance volume:

The work done for compression of air polytropically can be given by the are a
enclosed in cycle 1-2-3-4.
Multi-stage compression:
In this method, the compression of air is carried out in two or more stages in
separate cylinders

The pressure of the air is increased in each stage.

It is a common practice to provide intercoolers between the cylinders of multi-stage

compressor,

the purpose of cooling the compressed air to atmospheric (intake) temperature

before entering the succeeding (next) stage

It is this cooling between the cylinders that keeps the compression very near
to isothermal
Multi-stage compression:
single-acting, two-stage air compressor with perfect-intercooling:
Advantages of multi-stage compression :
Centrifugal compressor:

It is dynamic compressor.

It consist of a rotating impeller which rotates at higher

speed (upto 60000 rpm)

An impeller fitted inside casing force the air to the rim of
impeller, increasing velocity of air.
Centrifugal compressor
 Centrifugal compressor

A diffuser (divergent shape of casing) section converts the

velocity of air to cause an increase in pressure. This process
is called dynamic compression.

These compressors are used for continuous,

stationary services in industries like oil refineries,
chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants.
Screw compressor:

 It consist of two screws - one with convex and

the other with concave contour mostly called
male and female rotor respectively.

 These two screws gets rotating by means of gear

trips there by sucking the air through an inlet port in
chamber and then compressing the same
Screw compressor:
Selection of compressors:

Selection of air compressor for given application is

governed by several factors as below
Pressure
Flow rates or capacity
Geometry of cylinder
Speed of piston
The layout of pipe line, system requirement and the
distance of user machine from compressor plant
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