REFRIGERATION TECHNOLOGY

Presented by

Dr. P. Senthil Kumar,

Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Automobile Engineering,
Madras Institute of Technology,
Anna University, Chennai.
 REFRIGERATOR
• The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
• The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the cold medium; the objective
of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a
warm medium.
 HEAT PUMP
• Heat pump supplies heat to the higher-temperature
region from lower temperature by giving work as
input.

• Heat pumps and refrigerators are essentially the

same devices; they differ in their objectives only.

for fixed values of QL and QH

TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
• Vapour Compression Refrigeration
(VCR): uses mechanical energy
• Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR):
uses thermal energy
• Steam Jet Refrigeration system
• Liquid N2 bath
• Ice bunk cooling system
• Etc…
 THE PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
The process of the vapor compression
refrigeration cycle may conveniently
be displayed on a diagram having
pressure and specific enthalpy as
coordinates.

Below the critical point (CP) the

saturated liquid line (SL) and saturated
vapor line (SV) enclose a two-phase
(wet) region between them.

 To the left of the saturated liquid line

lie states which have lower
temperature than the saturation
temperature at a given pressure.

 These are states of sub-cooled liquid.

 THE PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
 To the right of the saturated vapor line lie states which have higher
temperature than the saturation temperature at a given pressure.
 These are states of superheated vapor.
 The area to the left of the liquid line is called the subcooled liquid region,
and the area to the right of the vapor line is called the superheated vapor
region.
 Within the two-phase region the horizontal lines of constant pressure are
also lines of constant temperature
 In the superheat region the lines of constant temperature leave the
saturation line as indicated.
 As the pressure diminishes in the superheat region, the lines of constant
temperature tend to become lines of constant enthalpy, i.e. vertical on the
diagram, indicating that the vapor is beginning to behave like an ideal gas
with its enthalpy independent of pressure.
 Lines of constant specific entropy and lines of constant specific volume ,
are shown in the superheat region.
 REFRIGERANT IN VAPOR
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
 The working substance in a refrigeration system is called the refrigerant.
 There are lots of refrigerants, including gas, liquid and solid refrigerants.
 There are many natural and artificial substances have been used in mechanical
driven and thermal driven vapor compression refrigeration systems.
 In lithium bromide vapor absorption refrigeration system, H2O is used as a
refrigerant and LiBr is an absorbent ; in NH3 vapor absorption refrigeration
system, NH3 is a refrigerant; is an absorbent.
 Water H2O is also used as a refrigerant both in vapor adsorption and in vapor
jet refrigeration cycles. In mechanical driven vapor compression refrigeration,
NH3, CO2, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydro chloro fluoro carbons (HCFCs),
hydro fluoro carbons (HFCs), azeotropic and zeotropic mixtures, inorganic
compounds, hydrocarbons, and others are used as refrigerants.
 REFRIGERATION CHARACTERISTICS
OF REFRIGERANTS
 The pressure- enthalpy diagram
is the usual graphic means of
presenting refrigerant properties
and its cycles.
 A typical vapor compression
refrigeration cycle has been
shown in figure
 REFRIGERANT PROPERTIES
1. Appropriate temperature and pressure characteristics

 The saturated pressure with temperature is an important property

of refrigerant.
1) It is desired for the pressure at evaporating temperature to be
above atmospheric, to avoid inward leakage of air.
2)The pressure at the corresponding condensing temperature
should not be excessive, so that extra strength high-side equipment
is not required.
3) Low compression ratio is desirable, because the degree of
complication and difficulty of a compressor increases directly with
the compression ratio.
4) Discharge temperature of compressor should not be excessive,
to avoid problems as breakdown or dilution of the lubricating oil,
decomposition of the refrigerant, or formation of contaminants
such as sludge or acids. All of these can lead to compressor damage.
 REFRIGERANT PROPERTIES
2. High latent heat of vaporization and low specific
volume of the refrigerant at the entry to compressor

 A high latent heat of vaporization and a low specific volume of

the refrigerant at entry to the compressor are desirable for
smaller equipment and pipe size at given cooling capacity.
 High latent heat means there is a high refrigeration effect.
 For example, R11 has a much larger specific volume of suction
vapor of compressor than those of refrigerants of R22, R502 and
R717.
 That means it requires a higher volumetric flow rate to produce
the same amount of cooling capacity.
 Therefore, R11 is usually used with centrifugal compressors
because they are good at handing large volumetric flow rate.
 REFRIGERANT PROPERTIES
3. Lower compression work

 In order to get high COP, both high refrigeration effect and

low compression work must be considered in combination.

 For example, R717 (ammonia ) has a refrigerating effect q1 much

larger than other refrigerants, but its compression work w is
also high, as a result, COP of ammonia has the same order of
magnitude as that of the other refrigerants.
 REFRIGERANT PROPERTIES
4. Some Important Physical/Chemical Properties of
Refrigerants

 Any substance which has appropriate thermal properties can be

used as a refrigerant, but in practice the choice is limited by
many factors such as toxicity, flammability, chemical stability,
and the behaviors of the refrigerant with lubricating oil, water
and construction materials.
 VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
(VCR) CYCLE
The vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle has four components:
1. Evaporator,
2. Compressor,
3. Condenser, and
4. Expansion (or throttle) valve

 In a basic vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor and is cooled to the saturated
liquid state in the condenser. VCR - Cycle
 It is then throttled to the evaporator
pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs
heat from the refrigerated space
 VCR - Cycle
 The principal work and heat transfer that
occurs in the system are shown below,
these quantities being taken as positive in
the directions indicated by the arrows in
the Fig. 6.4.
 In the analyses, each component is first
separately considered.
 The evaporator, in which the desired
refrigeration effect is achieved, will be
considered first.
 Considering a control volume enclosing
the refrigerant side of the evaporator,
conservation of mass and energy applied
to this control volume together give the
rate of heat transfer per unit mass of
refrigerant flow in the evaporator as:
Qe
qe   h1  h4
m
 VCR - Cycle
 Next consider the compressor.
 It is usually adequate to assume that there is no heat transfer to or
from the compressor.
 Conservation of mass and energy rate applied to a control volume
enclosing the compressor then give:

Wi
wi   h2  h1
m
 For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser,
the rate of heat transfer from the refrigerant per unit mass of
refrigerant is:
Qc
qc   h2  h3
m
 VCR - Cycle
 Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and
expands to the evaporator pressure.

 This process is usually modeled as a throttling process in which there

is no heat transfer, i.e., for which
h4  h3
 In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the
compressor power, the expansion valve involving no power input or
output.
 Using the quantities and expressions introduced above, the coefficient of
performance, COP, of the vapor- compression refrigeration system is given
by:

qe Qe / m h1  h4
COP   
wi Wi / m h2  h1
 LIQUID SUBCOOING
 In practice some degree of subcooling
may be acquired, and the point 3 moves to
the left of the saturated liquid on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram, as shown in
Figure.
 Subcooling is the process of cooling
condensed gas beyond what is required
for the condensation process.
 Subcooling is sensible heat and is
Subcooling of the liquid and superheating
measured in degrees. of the vapor
 If it was possible to further cool down the
liquid to some lower value, say upto 3’,
then the net refrigeration effect will be
increased by

(h1  h4' )  (h1  h4 )  h4  h4'  h3  h3'

 LIQUID SUBCOOING
 The volume refrigerating effect is of course increased by subcooling in
the same way as the specific refrigerating effect.
 Since the specific work of compression remains the same, the
coefficient of performance is improved.

 The subcooling may be achieved by any of the following methods:

 (i) By passing the liquid refrigerant from condenser through a heat

exchanger through which the cold vapor at suction from the
evaporator is allowed to flow in the reversed direction.

 (ii) By making use of enough quantity of cooling water so that the

liquid refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature of
saturation.
 VAPOR SUPERHEATING
 If the vapor at the compressor entry is in the
superheated state 1’, which is produced due to
higher heat absorption in the evaporator, then
the refrigerating effect is increased as
(h1'  h4 )  (h1  h4 )  h1'  h1
 The specific work of reversible adiabatic
compression is increased by superheat. This is
indicated in Figure by the decreased gradient of
the line of constant entropy though point 1’ in Subcooling of the liquid and
the superheat region compared with the superheating of the vapor
gradient of the line though point 1.

 Although the specific work of reversible

adiabatic compression is increased by superheat,
so is the specific refrigerating effect, however,
their ratio, COP, may increase, decrease or
remain unchanged depending upon the range of
pressure of the cycle.
 VAPOR SUPERHEATING
 Here, it is necessary to consider the effect of heat transfer to the
refrigerant vapor in the suction pipe from the evaporator to the
compressor.

 The suction line usually passes though warm surroundings, then heat
transfer to the vapor can take place, which will cause the temperature
increase.

 This will cause a part of refrigerating capacity loss to refrigerate engine

room, so it will be called “useless refrigerant capacity”.

 And the capacity used to refrigerate things which need refrigeration

will be called “useful refrigerant capacity”.

 In practice, useless refrigerant capacity loss should be decreased, and

should increase useful capacity as possible.
CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
• Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-
compression systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration
system also increases as a result of cascading.
 MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
•When the fluid used throughout the cascade refrigeration system is the same, the heat
exchanger between the stages can be replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash
chamber) since it has better heat transfer characteristics.
 VAPOUR ABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION (VAR) SYSTEM
• When there is a source of
inexpensive thermal energy at a
temperature of 100 to 200°C is
absorption refrigeration.
• Some examples include
geothermal energy, solar energy,
and waste heat from cogeneration
or process steam plants, and even
natural gas when it is at a relatively
low price.
• Vapour Absorption refrigeration
(VAR) systems involve the
absorption of a refrigerant by a
transport medium.
• The most widely used system is
the ammonia–water system, where
ammonia (NH3) serves as the
refrigerant and water (H2O) as the
transport medium.
 VAR SYSTEM
• Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride
systems, where water serves as the refrigerant. These systems are limited to
applications such as A-C where the minimum temperature is above the
freezing point of water.
• Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major advantage: A
liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result the work input is very
small (on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to the generator) and
often neglected in the cycle analysis.
• ARS are often classified as heat-driven systems.
• ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration
systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less
efficient thus requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat,
and they are more difficult to service since they are less common.
• Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy
is low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
• ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations.
VAR SYSTEM
 VAR SYSTEM
The COP of actual absorption refrigeration
systems is usually less than 1.
Air-conditioning systems based on
absorption refrigeration, called absorption
chillers, perform best when the heat source
can supply heat at a high temperature with
little temperature drop.
 VCR CYCLE COMPONENTS

• Refrigerant
• Evaporator/Chiller
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver
• Thermostatic expansion valve
(TXV)
 REFRIGERANT

• Desirable properties:
– High latent heat of vaporization - max cooling
– Non-toxicity (no health hazard)
– Desirable saturation temp (for operating pressure)
– Chemical stability (non-flammable/non-explosive)
– Ease of leak detection
– Low cost
– Readily available
 LOW SIDE OPERATION
• Refrigerants have low boiling points
• When liquid boils, it absorbs large amounts of heat
• Amount of heat absorbed in evaporator is proportional to
amount of refrigerant boiled
• High side Components
• Expansion device
• Evaporator
• Accumulator (if equipped)

29
EXPANSION DEVICES
• The expansion device separates the high side from the low
side and provides a restriction for the compressor to pump
against.
• There are two styles of expansion devices:
• The TXV can open or close to change flow. It is controlled
by the superheat spring, thermal bulb that senses
evaporator outlet temperature, and evaporator pressure
• Most OTs have a fixed diameter orifice

30
 TXV SYSTEM

A TXV controls the

refrigerant flow from
the high pressure side
to the evaporator. A
receiver dryer is
mounted in the liquid
line of all TXV systems.
 OT SYSTEM

An OT controls the refrigerant

flow from the high pressure
side to the evaporator. An
accumulator is mounted in the
suction line of all OT systems.
THERMAL EXPANSION VALVES, TXVs

•The three major types of expansion valves:

•Internally balanced TXVs are the most Internally
common. Balanced
•Externally balanced TXVs are used on some
larger evaporators.
•Block valves route the refrigerant leaving Externally
the evaporator past the thermal sensing Balanced
diaphragm so a thermal bulb is not needed.

Block Valve

33
THERMAL EXPANSION VALVES, TXVS
• Variable valve that can change size of opening in response to
system load
• Opens or closes depending on evaporator pressure and
temperature

34
 EVAPORATOR OPERATION

Hot, liquid refrigerant flows through

the expansion device in the low side to
become a fine mist.

Refrigerant boils or evaporates to

become a gas inside the evaporator.

The boiling refrigerant absorbs heat

from the air during this change of state.

35
 EVAPORATOR/CHILLER

• Located in space to be refrigerated

• Cooling coil acts as an indirect heat exchanger
• Absorbs heat from surroundings and vaporizes
– Latent Heat of Vaporization
– Sensible Heat of surroundings
• Slightly superheated (10°F) ensures no liquid carryover into compressor
ACCUMULATORS

Accumulators are used in the suction line of all OT

systems.
The accumulator:
•separates liquid refrigerant so only gas flows to
the compressor.
•Allows oil in the bottom of the accumulator to
return to the compressor.
•provides storage for a refrigerant reserve.
•contains the desiccant bag for water removal.
•provides a place to mount low pressure switches
and sensors.
37
 HIGH SIDE OPERATION
• Takes low pressure vapor from evaporator and returns high
pressure liquid to expansion device
• Must increase vapor temperature above ambient temperature for
heat transfer to occur resulting in change of state from vapor to
liquid
• High side Components
• High begins at compressor and ends at expansion device
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver-drier (if equipped)

38
 COMPRESSOR
• Superheated Vapor:
– Enters as low press, low temp vapor
– Exits as high press, high temp vapor
• Temp: creates differential (DT) promotes heat transfer
• Press: Tsat allows for condensation at warmer temps
• Increase in energy provides the driving force to circulate
refrigerant through the system
 COMPRESSORS
There is a large variety of compressors.
Some of variations are:
The compressor manufacturer
Piston, vane, or scroll type
The piston and cylinder arrangement
How the compressor is mounted
Style and position of ports
Type and number of drive belts
Compressor displacement
Fixed or variable displacement

40
 COMPRESSOR OPERATION
Out/Discharge: High
In/Suction: Low Pressure, about 200 psi
Pressure, about 30 psi & High Temperature,
& Low Temperature, above ambient
close to freezing

The compressor increases the refrigerant

pressure about five to ten times. This
increases the temperature so heat can
leave the refrigerant in the condenser.

41
 PISTON COMPRESSORSReed Valve Plate

This two-cylinder compressor Piston

uses a crankshaft to move the
pistons up and down. Connecting Rod
Refrigerant flow is controlled
Crankshaft
by the suction and discharge
Shaft Seal
reeds in the valve plate.

42
 SCOTCH YOKE COMPRESSORS
Discharge Reed
Suction Reed
A Scotch yoke compressor has two pairs of
pistons that are driven by a slider block on
the crankshaft. The pistons are connected
by a yoke.

Pistons Yoke

43
 SCROLL COMPRESSORS
Orbiting
Fixed Scroll
The orbiting scroll is driven by the
crankshaft and moves in a small Scroll
circular orbit. The fixed scroll
remains stationary

Shaft Seal

Clutch Assembly

44
 SWASH PLATE COMPRESSORS
Pistons
Reed Plate
The swash plate is mounted at an
angle onto the drive shaft. It drives
three double-ended pistons. Two sets
of reeds control the refrigerant flow in
and out of the cylinders,

Swash Plate

Shaft Seal
Clutch Assembly
45
 VANE COMPRESSORS
Rotor
Vane
The rotor is driven by the clutch and
driveshaft. The vanes move in and out of
the rotor to follow the outer wall to
pump refrigerant.

Shaft Seal
Discharge
Reed

46
 WOBBLE PLATE COMPRESSORS

Piston

Wobble Plate Bearing Angle/Drive Plate

The wobble plate does not rotate; it just wobbles, being driven by the angled drive plate that
does rotate. Variable displacement, wobble plate compressors can change the angle of the drive
plate, and this changes piston stroke and compressor displacement. Most wobble plate
compressors have 5 to 7 pistons.
47
 CONDENSER OPERATION

Hot, high pressure gas is pumped from the compressor to enter the condenser.
The gas gives up its
heat to the air passing through the condenser. Removing heat from the hot gas causes it
to change state and become liquid.

48
CONDENSER TYPES

Condensers A and C are round

tube, serpentine condensers.

Condenser B is an oval/flat tube,

serpentine condenser.

Condenser D is an oval/flat tube,

parallel flow condenser.

Flat tube condensers are more

efficient.

49
 SERPENTINE CONDENSER

Refrigerant flows from the

upper inlet to the bottom
outlet through two tubes.
These tubes wind back and
forth though the condenser.

50
 PARALLEL FLOW CONDENSER

Refrigerant flows from the upper inlet to the

bottom outlet through groups of parallel
tubes. Some carry refrigerant from the right to
the left, and others move it back to the right
side.

51
 HEAT EXCHANGERS
 Condensers have to move heat from the refrigerant to the air.
 Evaporators must move heat from air to the refrigerant.
 Both require a lot of contact area for both air and refrigerant.
 Both require free movement of air and refrigerant.

52
 RECEIVER DRYERS
Barb
A receiver dryer is mounted in the liquid line of a
TXV system. It is used to: Connections,
Note Sight
•to store a reserve of refrigerant. Glass
•hold the desiccant bag that removes water from
the refrigerant.
Male Flare
•filter the refrigerant and remove debris particles. Connections
•provide a sight glass so refrigerant flow can be
observed.
•provide a location for switch mounting.

Male O-ring
Connections,
Note Switch

53
 PROBLEM-1
An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle operates at steady state
with Refrigerant 134a as the working fluid. Saturated vapor enters the
compressor at 2 bar, and saturated liquid exits the condenser at 8 bar. The
mass flow rate of refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
a) the compressor power, in kW
b) the refrigerating capacity, in tons
c) the coefficient of performance
Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
 Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
An ideal cycle has no irreversibilities within the evaporator and
condenser, and there are no frictional pressure drops. Compression
is isentropic. The T-s diagram is shown on the next slide.
Process 1-2s: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant;
Process 2s-3: Heat transfer from refrigerant to outside air, at
constant pressure;
Process 3-4: Throttling process to a two-phase mixture at lower
pressure;
Process 4-1: Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it flows at constant
pressure through the evaporator;
 Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, the heat
transfer per unit mass of refrigerant flowing is:

Q in
 ( h1  h4 ); m
 is refrigerant mass flow
m
A ton of refrigeration is equal to 200 Btu/min or 211 kJ/min.
Work done by compressor per unit mass flow of refrigerant is

W c
 ( h2  h1 );
m
 Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
Heat rejected by the refrigerant:
Q out
 ( h2  h3 );
m
Expansion valve:
h4  h3

Coefficient of performance:
Q in
  1 (h  h )
 m
4
;
Wc ( h2  h1 )
m
 SOLUTION
Let us first get the properties at each state in the cycle.
State 1: p1 = 2 bar, sat vapor. h1 = 241.30 kJ/kg, s1 = 0.9253
kJ/kg.K
State 2: p2 = 8 bar, s2 = s1, h2 = 269.92 kJ/kg
State 3: p3 = 8 bar, sat. liquid, h3 = 93.42 kJ/kg
State 4: Throttling process, h4 = h3 = 93.42 kJ/kg
a) The compressor power is:
7
WC  m (h2  h1 )  ( kg / s)(269.92  241.30)kJ / kg  3.34kW
60
 Solution
b) The refrigerating capacity is

Qin  m (h1  h4 )  (7kg /min)(241.30  93.42)kJ / kg / 211tons / kJ /min

 4.91 tons

c)The coefficient of performance is

(h1  h4 ) (241.30  93.42)

   5.17
(h2  h1 ) (269.92  241.30)
• Problem-2
• A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and
operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines. Determine:
• a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
• b) the power input to the compressor,
• c) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
• d) the coefficient of performance.
 Solution

Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06
Problem-3
Consider an ideal refrigeration cycle which uses R-12 as
the working fluid. The temperature of the refrigerant in
the evaporator is –20C and in the condenser it is 40C.
The refrigerant is circulated at the rate of 0.03kg/s.
Determine the coefficient of performance and the
capacity of the plant in rate of refrigeration.
For each control volume analyzed, the thermodynamic
model is the R-12 tables. Each process is SSSF with no
change in kinetic or potential energy.
Control volume: Compressor.
Inlet state: T1 known, saturated vapor; state fixed.
Exit state: P2 known(saturation pressure at T3).
wc  h2  h1
s2  s1
At T3=40C

Pg  P2  0.9607 MPa
h1  178.61kJ / kg
s1  s2  0.7082
T2  50.8o C
h2  211.38kJ / kg
wc  h2  h1  32.77kJ / kg
Control volume: Expansion valve.
Inlet state: T3 known, saturated liquid; state fixed.
Exit state: T4 known.
h3  h4  74.53kJ / kg
Control volume: Evaporator.
Inlet state: State 4 known.
Exit state: State 1 known.

qL  h1  h4  104.08kJ / kg
qL
  3.18
wc
Capacity  3.12kW
• Problem-3
Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on an ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated
vapor at 140 kPa and is compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine the:

a) quality of the refrigerant at evaporator inlet,

b) coefficient of performance, and
c) power input to the compressor.
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Presented by

Dr. P. Senthil Kumar,

Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Automobile Engineering,
Madras Institute of Technology,
Anna University, Chennai.
PSYCHROMETRY & AIR PROCESSES
Psychrometry is the science dealing with the physical laws of
air – water mixtures.
When designing an air conditioning system, the temperature
and moisture content of the air to be conditioned, and the same
properties of the air needed to produce the desired air
conditioning effect, must be known.
Once these properties are known, the air conditioning task can
be determined.
 COMPOSITION OF AIR
ATMOSPHERIC AIR

 Atmospheric air is not completely dry but a mixture of dry air and
water vapor.
 In atmospheric air, the content water vapor varies from 0 to 3% by
mass.
 The processes of air-conditioning and food refrigeration often
involve removing water from the air (dehumidifying), and adding
water to the air (humidifying).
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR
(1) Dry bulb temperature t:
 Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of the air, as measured by an
ordinary thermometer.
 The temperature of water vapor is the same as that of the dry air in
moist air.
 Such a thermometer is called a dry-bulb thermometer in psychrometry,
because its bulb is dry.

(2) Wet bulb temperature tWB:

 Wet bulb temperature is thermodynamic adiabatic temperature in an
adiabatic saturation process, and measured by a wet bulb thermometer.
 The wet bulb temperature will be discussed in the next paragraph.
 THERMOMETERS

Dry Bulb

Wet Bulb
(3) Dew point temperature tDP:
 When the unsaturated moist air is
cooled at constant vapor pressure or
at constant humidity ratio, to a
temperature, the moist air becomes
saturated and the condensation of
moisture starts, this temperature is
called dew point temperature of the
moist air.
 Condensation occurs at the Dew Point
Temperature
 (4) Relative humidity Ф:
 Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of the water
vapor in a given moist air to the mole fraction of water vapor in a saturated
moist air at the same temperature and the same atmospheric pressure.
 Relative humidity is usually expressed in percentage (%).
 From the ideal gas relations, relative humidity can be expressed as
xw Pw
 
x w, sat Pw, sat
 xw ---- the mole fraction of the water vapor in moist air;


x w , sat ---- mole fraction of water vapor in a saturated moist
air at the same temperature;

Amount of moisture that a given amount

Relative of air is holding
Humidity =
(%) Amount of moisture that a given
amount of air can hold
(5) Degree of Saturation μ:
 Degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the
humidity ratio of moist air w to the humidity ratio of
saturated moist air wsat at the same temperature and
atmosheric pressure.

w B  Pw,sat
 
wsat B  Pw

(6) Humidity ratio (Moisture Content) w:

 The humidity ratio is the mass kg of water vapor
interspersed in each kg of dry air.
 It should be noted that the mass of water refers only to
the moisture in actual vapor state, and not to any
moisture in the liquid state, such as dew, frost, fog or
rain.
 The humididy ratio, like other several properties to be
studied- enthalpy and specific volume-is based on 1kg of
dry air.
(7) Specific Volume/Moist Volume v:
 Specific volume of moist air v , m3/kgdry is defined as the total volume of
the moist air (dry air and water vapor mixture) per kg of dry air.

(8) Specific Enthalpy:

 Specific enthalpy of moist air h (kJ/kgdry) is defined as the total
enthalpy of the dry air and water vapor mixture per kg of dry air.
 Enthalpy values are always based on some datum plane.
 Usually the zero value of the dry air is chosen as air at 0℃, and the zero
value of the water vapor is the saturated liquid water at 0℃.
 ADIABATIC SATURATION PROCESS
 An unsturated air, which has dry bulb
temperature t1, humidity ratio w1 and
enthalpy h1, flows through a spray of
water, as shown in Figure. outlet

 The spray can provide enough surface saturated air

t 2,w2 ,h2
area so that the air leaves the spray
chamber in equilibrium with the water,
with respect to both the temperature
and the vapor pressue.
 In order to perpetuate the process, it is
necessary to provide makeup water
unsaturated air
(w2-w1) to compensate for the amount t 1 ,w1 ,h1
of water evaporated into the air. make up water
inlet (w 2 -w 1 )
 The temperature of the makeup water
is the same as that in the sump. thermometer
(thermodynamic sump pump
 If the device is adiabatic, then the wet-bulb temperature)
process is called adiabatic saturation
process.
 THERMODYNAMIC WET BULB
TEMPERATURE
 In an adiabatic saturation process, the temperature of the water
in the sump is called the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature
tWB of the air , or simply the wet bulb temperature of the air.

 An adiabatic saturation process is a constant wet bulb

temperature process, the wet bulb temperatures of air at the
inlet and the outlet are same, and they are equal to tWB.

 That is tW B1  tW B2

 MEASUREMENT OF WET BULB
TEMPERATURE
 A simple wet bulb thermometer used to measure the wet bulb temperature
is based on the principle of the adiabatic saturation process.
 It is an ordinary thermometer being wrapt with a cloth sleeve of wool or
flannel, around its bulb.
 The cloth sleeve should be clean and free of oil and thoroughly wet with
clean fresh water.
 The water in the cloth sleeve evaporates as the air flows at a high velocity
(≥2.5m/sec).
 The evaporation, which takes the heat from the thermometer bulb, lowers
the temperature of the bulb.
 The thermometer indicates approximately the wet bulb temperature tWB.
 The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures is called
the wet-bulb depression.
 If the air is saturated, evaporation cannot take place, and the wet-bulb
temperature is the same as the dry-bulb temperature; and the wet-bulb
depression equals zero.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
 A psychrometric chart graphically
represents the thermodynamic properties
of moist air and it is very useful in
presenting the air conditioning processes.
 The psychrometric chart is bounded by
two perpendicular axes and a curved line:
• 1) The horizontal ordinate axis
represents the dry bulb temperature
line t, in℃
• 2) The vertical ordinate axis
represents the humidity ratio line w, in
kgw/kgdry.air
• 3) The curved line shows the
saturated air, it is corresponding to the
relative humidity Ф=100% .
PROPERTIES IN PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
 The psychrometric chart incorporates seven parameters and properties.
They are dry bulb temperature t , relative humidity Ф , wet bulb
temperature tWB, dew point temperature tDP , specific volume v, humidity
ratio w and enthalpy h.

① Dry-bulb temperature t is shown along the bottom axis of the

psychrometric chart.
The vertical lines extending upward from this axis are constant-
temperature lines.
② Relative humidity lines Ф are shown on the chart as curved lines
that move upward to the left in 10% increments.
The line representing saturated air ( Ф= 100% ) is the uppermost
curved line on the chart. And the line of Ф = 0% is a horizontal
ordinate axis itself.
③ Wet-bulb temperature tWB : On the chart, the constant wet-bulb lines
slope a little upward to the left, and the wet bulb temperature is read
following a constant wet-bulb line from the state-point to the
saturation line.
PROPERTIES IN PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
④ Dew point temperature tDP : This temperature is read by following a
horizontal line from the state-point to the saturation line.
⑤ Specific volume v: It is shown from the constant-volume lines
slanting upward to the left.
⑥ Humidity ratio w: it is indicated along the right-hand axis of the
chart.
⑦ Enthalpy h: It is read from where the constant enthalpy line crosses
the diagonal scale above the saturation curve. The constant enthalpy
lines, being slanted lines, are almost coincidental as the constant
wet-bulb temperature lines.

 Only two properties are needed to characterize the moist air because
the point of intersection of any two properties lines defines the state-
point of air on a psychrometric chart.
 Once this point is located on the chart, the other air properties can be
read directly.
 AIR CONDITIONS ON THE
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
220

200
Humidity Ratio (grains/lb of dry air)

180

160

140

120

100 dew point

80
humidity ratio

60

40
wet bulb
dry bulb
20 relative humidity

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)

 AIR CONDITIONS ON THE
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
• There is one more property of air that is displayed on the psychrometric
chart—specific volume. It is defined as the volume of one Kg of dry air at a
specific temperature and pressure. As one pound of air is heated it occupies
more space—the specific volume increases.
220

200
Humidity Ratio (grains/lb of dry air)

180

160 specific volume lines

140 (cubic feet / pound of dry air)
120

100

80

60
40

20

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)
 COMFORT ZONE
The specifications for human comfort
 22 0 C  t  27 0 C
 Relative humidity: 40%    60%
 Air flow rate:  0.25m / sec

humidity ratio
A

70°F 80°F
[21.2°C [26.7°C
]
dry-bulb ]
temperature
 AIR HANDLING PROCESSES
1. Sensible Heating
2. Sensible Cooling
3. Humidification
4. Dehumidification
5. Cooling-Dehumidification
6. Heating-Humidification
 SENSIBLE COOLING
• The sensible cooling happens when the air is cooled without altering the specific
humidity. During this process, the relative humidity of the air will increase.
• The sensible cooling can only take place under the condition when the temperature
of the cooling coil is not below the dew point temperature of the air being processed.
 SENSIBLE HEATING
• The sensible heating is similar to sensible cooling, but with the dry bulb temperature
increasing.
• It should be noted that there should be no water within the heating system because the
evaporation of the water will increase the specific humidity of the air.
 HUMIDIFICATION
• In humidification process the moisture is added to air without changing the
dry-bulb temperature, the air condition moves upward along a dry-bulb
temperature line.
 DEHUMIDIFICATION
• In dehumidification process the moisture is removed from the air without
changing its dry-bulb temperature, the air condition moves downward along
a dry-bulb temperature line.
 CHANGE IN DRY BULB
TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE
COMBINED PROCESSES
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN
MOIST AIR AND SOLID SURFACE
 There are a lot of heat exchangers in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems.
 Moist air makes heat transfer and/or mass transfer with the solid
surface of the heat exchangers.
 If the solid surface is dry during the process, there is heat transfer only.
However, if the solid surface is wetted, there are both heat transfer and
mass transfer.
1. Sensible heat transfer between moist air and solid surface

 The sensible heat transfer rate dqsensible, KW, from the wetted surface to
the moist air is
dqsensible    dA  (t s  t a )
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN
MOIST AIR AND SOLID SURFACE
2. Mass transfer between moist air and solid surface

 The mass transfer rate of water vapor dm, kgw/s, from the wetted
surface to the moist air is
dm  D  dA  (ws  wa )
3. Latent heat transfer between moist air and solid surface

 The latent heat transfer rate dqlatent , KW, from the wetted surface to the
moist air is

dqlatent  D  dA  ( ws  wa )h fg
Process: from one state to another
Human comfort zone
FORCED VENTILATION
EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Fogging
EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Pad and Fan system

APPROACH TO RELEASE THERMAL
STRESS
 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS
1. Room air conditioners
 Window type air conditioner
 Split type air conditioner
2. Central air conditioning systems
3. Heat pumps
4. Evaporative coolers
 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS
• Room air conditioners use the standard compressor cycle and are sized to cool
just one room. To cool an entire house, several room units are necessary.
• Central air conditioning systems also operate on the compressor cycle
principle and are designed to cool the entire house. The cooled air is distributed
throughout the house using air ducts, which may be the same ducts that are used
by the heating system.
• Heat pumps, described in the heating section, use the compressor cycle, but it is
reversible. In the summer, the heat pump transfers heat from indoors to
outdoors. In the winter, the heat pump transfers heat from outdoors to indoors.
Heat pumps may be powered by electricity or natural gas.
• Evaporative coolers, also called "swamp coolers", do not use the compressor
cycle. Instead, they cool air by blowing it over a wet surface. You have
experienced this phenomenon when you get out of a swimming pool while a
breeze is blowing. As water evaporates, it absorbs heat from the air. Evaporative
cooling systems depend on the ability of air to absorb moisture, and so they only
work in dry climates such as the Southwest U.S.
TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS
WINDOW TYPE AIR CONDITIONER
WINDOW TYPE AIR CONDITIONER
• Window type air conditioners cool rooms rather than the entire home.
• Less expensive to operate than central units
• Their efficiency is generally lower than that of central air conditioners.
• Can be plugged into any 15- or 20-amp, 115-volt household circuit that
is not shared with any other major appliances
• It is a packaged AC contains all components in single unit.
 SPLIT TYPE AIR CONDITIONER
• Split type air conditioners is like
window type AC but it contains
two units such as indoor and
outdoor units .
• An outdoor metal cabinet contains
the condenser and compressor,
and an indoor cabinet contains the
evaporator and expansion device.
 CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING
• Circulate cool air through a system of supply and
return ducts. Supply ducts and registers (i.e.,
openings in the walls, floors, or ceilings covered by
grills) carry cooled air from the air conditioner to
the home.
• This cooled air becomes warmer as it circulates
through the home; then it flows back to the central
air conditioner through return ducts and registers

113
 CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
• Outside air is drawn in, filtered
and heated before it passes
through the main air
conditioning devices. The
colored lines in the lower part
of the diagram show the
changes of temperature and of
water vapor concentration
(not RH) as the air flows
through the system.
 TOTAL AIR CONDITIONING
• Variable fresh air mixer and dust and pollutant filtration.
• Supplementary heating with radiators in the outer rooms and individual mini
heater and
• Humidifier in the air stream to each room.
LOW TEMPERATURE ENGINEERING
(Cryogenic Technology)

1 December 2019 116

Cryogenics : Science of Low Temperature

1 December 2019 117

 Cryogenics
 Meaning : Production of icy cold (derived from Greek)
 Definition : Science that deals with low temperature
 Temp. limit : Below 123K (-150o C or -240o F)

Cryogenic Engineering
 Definition : Technology concerning with techniques,
 Definition : processes and equipment necessary for
 Temp. limit : producing low temperature

1 December 2019 118

 Applications of Cryogenics

Biology and Health care

 Preservation of seeds, stems and roots of plants

 Preservation of reproductive sperm of cattle

 Blood and tissue preservation

 Storage of oxygen in liquid form

 Cryosurgery of tumor and eye

1 December 2019 119

 Aeronautics and space

 Cryogenic engines for chemical rockets

 Cryogenic propellants for nuclear rockets

 Helium cryostats to detect deep space temperature

 Cryo- coolers for removal of heat from devices

 Satellites with liquid helium to detect infrared radiation

1 December 2019 120

 Energy and Environment

 Superconducting magnets for fusion reactors

 Superconducting magnetically levitated bullet trains

 Transport and storage of hydrogen in liquid form

 Production of LNG for storage and transport

 Removal of pollutants from work space and atmosphere

1 December 2019 121

 Cryogenic fluids / Cryogens

 Oxygen

 Nitrogen

 Air

 Hydrogen

 Helium

1 December 2019 122

 About cryogenic fluids

 Oxygen ( 3 stable isotopes of atomic number 16, 17 and 18)

 Nitrogen ( 2 stable isotopes of atomic number 14 and 15)

 Air

 Hydrogen (3 isotopes of atomic number 1, 2 and 3)

 Helium (2 isotopes of He4 and He3)

1 December 2019 123

 Other cryogenic fluids

 Argon

 Neon

 Fluorine

 Methane

1 December 2019 124

 Properties cryogenic fluids
Atomic Mass Atomic Tb (K)  Cp Tc (K) Pc Tt (K) Pt
Liquid No. No. / mole. (kg/m3) (kJ/kg K ) (MPa) (MPa)
weight
Helium – 3 (He3) 2 3 03.0160 3.19
Helium – 4 (He4) 2 4 04.0026 4.216 124.96 4.560 5.201 0.227 --- ---
Hydrogen (H) 1 1 01.0078 20.268 70.78 9.780 32.976 1.293 13.803 7.042

Deuterium (D) 1 2 02.0141 23.53

Neon (Ne) 10 21 20.1830 27.09 1204 1.840 44.4 2.71 24.56 43.0
Nitrogen (N) 7 14 14.0031 77.347 808.9 2.040 126.2 3.399 63.148 12.53
Air --- --- 28.97 78.9 874 1.970 133.3 3.9 --- ---
Fluorine (F) 9 19 18.9984 85.24 1506.8 1.536 144.0 5.57 53.5 0.22
Argon (Ar) 18 40 39.9624 87.28 1403 1.140 150.7 4.87 83.8 68.6
Oxygen (O) 8 16 15.9949 90.18 1141 1.700 154.576 5.04 54.35 0.151
Methane (CH4) --- --- 16.04 111.7 425 3.450 190.7 4.63 88.7 10.1

1 December 2019 125

 Methods of producing low temperature

 Conduction cooling

 Evaporative cooling

 Joule-Thompson expansion

 Adiabatic expansion

1 December 2019 126

Conduction cooling
Hot Cold

Evaporative cooling

Pot-in-pot refrigerator

1 December 2019 127

Joule-Thomson expansion

Adiabatic expansion

1 December 2019 128

Cryogenic systems

Liquefaction
system

Cryogenic Refrigeration
system
system

Gas
separation
system

1 December 2019 129

 Cryogenic liquefaction systems

1 December 2019 130

 Liquefaction systems

 Linde system (Linde-Hampson system)

 Claude system

 Kapitza system

 Heylandt system

1 December 2019 131

 Linde liquefaction system
Isothermal

h1  h2 
Liquid yield , y 
h1  hf 

1 December 2019 132

 Claude liquefaction system

h1  h2  h3  he 
Liquid yield , y  x
h1  hf  h 1  hf 
1 December 2019 133
 Kapitza liquefaction system

1 December 2019 134

 Heylandt liquefaction system

1 December 2019 135

 Cryogenic refrigeration systems

1 December 2019 136

 Cryogenic refrigerators

 Linde refrigerator (Joule-Thomson refrigerator)

 Claude refrigerator

 Kapitza refrigerator

 Heylandt refrigerator

1 December 2019 137

 Cold-gas refrigerators
 Philips refrigerator

 Solvay refrigerator (A.D. Little single-volume refrigerator)

 Gifford-McMahon refrigerator (A.D. Little double refrigerator)

Solid-media refrigerators
 Paramagnetic cooling system

 Nuclear de-magnetization cooling system

1 December 2019 138

Thank you

139