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UNIT I

DIGITAL COMPUTERS
 1.1 Introduction
 1.2 Blockdiagram of digital computer
 1.3 Definition of computer organization
 1.4 Basic design and computer architecture
1.4.1 instruction codes
1 .4.2 computer registers
1.4.3 computer instructions
1.4.4 Timing and control
1.4.5 Instruction cycle
1.4.6 memory reference instructions
1.4.7 input and output and interrupt
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL COMPUTER
(von-neumann architecture)
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL COMPUTER
 Input unit
 Output unit
 Central processing unit
 Memory unit
INPUT DEVICE:

 Data and instructions must enter the system before any computation
can be performed on the supplied data
 It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside
world
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system
for further processing.

•Keyboard
•Mouse
•Magnetic tape
•Floppy
•Hard disk
•Scanner
•Joystick
•Compact disk
•Digital
versatile disk
OUTPUT DEVICE

 The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an


input unit
 It supplies the information obtained as a result of data
processing to the outside world
 computers work with binary code, the results produced are
also in the binary form.Hence, before supplying the results
to the outside world, it must be converted to human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is achieved by units
called output interfaces
MEMORY DEVICE:
The specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store):
• All the data to be processed and the instructions required for
processing (received from input devices).
• Intermediate results for processing.
• Final results of processing before these results are released
to an output device.

• The primary storage, also known as main memory, is used to


hold pieces of program instructions and data, intermediate
results of processing, and recently produced results of
processing of the job(s) that the computer system is currently
working on
• The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is
used to take care of the limitations of the primary storage
CENTRAL POCESSING UNIT:
• The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) of a computer system is the
place where the actual execution of the instructions takes place
during the processing operation
• The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that
a computer can perform is determined by the engineering
design of the ALU
• Almost all ALUs are designed to perform the four basic
arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, and divide), and
logic operations or comparisons such as less than, equal to,
and greater than.
INSTRUCTION CODES:

 An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the


computer to perform a specific task.
 It is usually divided into parts, each having its own
particular interpretation.
 They are: Operation Code, and Operands.
 The most basic part of an instruction code is its
operation part.
WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTION?

 A Computer instruction is binary code that specifies a


sequence of micro operation for the Computer.
 The Computer reads each instruction from memory and
places it in a control register.
 The control then interprets the binary code of the
instruction and proceeds to execute it by issuing a
sequence of micro operations.
OPERATION CODE:

 The Operation Code (OpCode) of an instruction is a


group of bits that define each operation such add,
subtract, multiply, shift, and complement.
 It must consist of at least n bits for a given 2n distinct
operations. Suppose we are having 64 (26) operation
then the length of OpCode will be 6.
 The control unit decode the OpCode and do the required
operation.
OPERANDS:

 The Operation must be performed on some data stored


in processor register or in memory.
 Every Computer has its own particular instruction code
format.
 The Simplest way to organize a computer is to have an
instruction code format with two parts.
 The first part specifies the operation to be performed
and the second specifies an address.
 For 1-address instruction consider source addresses as
s1 as accumulator and s2 as register/memory and
always the destination address is accumulator
 The kind of operations will be done are arithmetic
operations and data transfer operations
 Ex:push a;push the contents of A on to TOS(top of the
satck)
 Pop x;(remove the contents from TOS to the memory
location of variable X)
 Lda x;(from memory location of having variable x to the
accumulator)
 Sta x;(from accumulator to the memory location x)
COMPUTER REGISTERS
COMPUTER REGISTER OGANIZATION:
 Initially the address of the instruction which is to be
executed is placed in the PC and then from PC the
address is loaded in to AR and from that memory
addressed location the instruction is brought and placed
in an IR(instruction Register)(called as Fetch Cycle)
 After placing in an IR the contents are decoded by the
Control Unit and now the processor understands what
operation is to be performed by it.(Decoding Cycle)
 Now the processor executes the instruction and the
result will be placed in an AC(accumulator register) and
from AC the result is placed in memory unit(Execution
cycle)
FLOW CHART FOR INSTRUCTION CYCLE
INTERRUPT
An interrupt is a signal sent to the processorthat interrupts the
current process. It may be generated by a hardware device or
a software program.so called as software interrupts and
hardware interrupts
Ex: interrupt can be from devices like
printer,scanner,keyboard,mouse

Instruction cycle with interrupts is shown below


INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATION
TIMIMG AND CONTROL UNIT OR HARDWIRED CONTROL UNIT

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