Measurements of

Vertical Distances
– Part 2
Sources of Error in
Levelling

Common Mistakes in
Levelling

Adjustment to Dumpy
Level

Reporter:
2
Sources of Error in
Levelling

3
I. Instrumental Error
These errors are attributed to
imperfections in the instruments either
from faults in their manufacture or
from improper adjustment. In levelling
work, instrumental error usually due to
a defective tripod, a levelling rod not
of standard length, or when the
instrument used is out of adjustment.
4
 Instrument Out of
Adjustment
Most common instrumental error us
caused by the level being out of
adjustment. Particularly significant is
when the line of sight of the telescope
is not parallel to the axis of the level
vial.

5
 Defective Tripod
The movement of the level due to
settling of the tripod legs can cause
possible errors in levelling works. The
tripod usually settles in soft ground or
due to vibrations caused by passing
vehicular traffic.
6
II. Personal Error

7
 Bubble Not Centered
The magnitude of the
error depend on how
sensitive the vial has
been designed. The
instrument should not
be handled
unnecessarily after it
is set up and levelled.
8
 Parallax
Parallax is a condition arising when the
image formed by the objective is not in
the plane of the cross-hairs. Unless
parallax in eliminated, accurate
sighting is impossible. Parallax can be
eliminated in two steps. 

9
 Elimination of Parallax
Focusing the eye piece for distinct vision
of cross-hairs
To focus the eye piece for distinct vision of the
cross-hairs, point the telescope to words sky
(or hold a piece of white paper in front of the
objective) and move eye-piece in or out till the
cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
Focusing the eye piece to bring the image
of the object
The telescope is now directed towards the staff
and the focusing screw is turned till the image
appears clear and sharp. The image so formed 10
 Faulty Rod Readings
An incorrect rod reading is
usually the result of length
of sight, poor weather
conditions, and skull of the
instrument man and the
rodman. In ordinary
levelling work it is
advisable that the length of
sight should not exceed
90m. Extra ling sight are
common such as when
levelling across a wide 11
 Rod Not Held Plumb
▫ Rod should not held vertically produces rod
readings that are larger than the actual
value.
▫ Appreciable inclinations of the rod must be
avoided particularly when a high rod is
used.
▫ The error can either be cumulative or
eliminated.
▫ Can be eliminated by:
Waving the rod
Use a rod level
12
 Unequal Back sight &
Foresight Distances
▫ BS and FS distances must be equal to
eliminate errors due to the imperfection of
the instrument used, as well as errors due
to refraction and earth’s curvature.
▫ Can be eliminated by: pacing, taping (for
precise leveling works) & proper estimation
especially for rugged terrains.

13
III. Natural Errors

14
 Curvature of the Earth
▫ Produces an error only when BS and FS
distances are not balanced.
▫ Error varies as the square of the
distance from instrument to rod.
▫ Correction to the elevation: c = 0.0785
K2
▫ Can be eliminated by:
Balancing each DB.S. and DF.S.
15
 Atmospheric Refraction
▫ The presence of heat waves on hot days is
a sign of rapidly fluctuating refraction in
the atmosphere.
▫ Makes the rod look unsteady.
▫ Varies as the square of the distance,
around 1/7 and opposite in sign of that
error due to the Earth’s curvature.
▫ Usually considered together with Earth’s
curvature.
▫ Often changes rapidly and greatly when
the sights are taken closer to the ground
16
 Temperature Variations
Changes in temperature causes
levelling rods to either expand or
contract and these could introduced
errors when taking rod measure. To
guard against such effect invar or
nilvar graduated strips are used on
rods for precise levelling work.
17
 Wind

A strong wind can shake a levelling

instrument making it difficult to center
the bubble in the level vial.

18
 Settlement of the
In Instrument
soft or thawing ground, mud, and
swamps the instrument may settle in
the interval of time between rod
readings. This source of error is
cumulative since every settlement of
the instrument increases the
computed elevations of all other
observed points by the amount of
settlement. 19
 Faulty Turning Points

In differential levelling work, a poorly

chosen turning point may be a source
of error. This condition is similar to
that resulting from settlement of the
instrument.

20
Common Mistake in
Levelling

21
• MISREADING THE ROD
• INCORRECT READING
• ERRONEOUS COMPUTATION
• ROD NOT FULLY EXTENDED
• MOVING TURNING POINTS

22
Adjustment of Dumpy
Level

23
ADJUSTMENT OF
THE CROSS HAIRS

ADJUSTMENT OF
THE LEVEL VIAL

ADJUSTMENT OF
THE LINE OF SIGHT

24
Alternate Procedure for
Two-Peg Test

Curvature & Refraction

Measurement of Angles
and Directions

Meridians

Reporter:
25
Alternate Procedure for Two-Peg
Test
It is based upon the principle that if
the line of sight of the instrument is
not horizontal, it will deviate up or
down in direct proportion to the
horizontal distance from the
instrument to the rod.

26
Where:
A = rod reading on A with instrument set up at M
B = rod reading on B with instrument set up at M
C = rod reading on A with instrument set up at P
D = rod reading on B with instrument set up at P
c’ =correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight

d’ = correct rod reading on B for a horizontal line of sight

Procedure of Testing
Two pegs designated as A and B are set 60
to 90 meters apart on fairly level ground
(Fig. 16-1). The instrument is first set up and
leveled at a point M which is equally distant
from both pegs. Then rod readings a and b
are taken on A and B, respectively. The true
difference in elevation between two pegs is
TDE= (a-b)
the difference in elevation calculated as
follows
28
Procedure of Testing
▫  
If is equal to , the line of sight is parallel to
the axis of the level tube, and it can be
concluded that the line of sight is horizontal.
If not, is called the erroneous or false
difference in elevation, and the inclination of
the line of sight from the horizontal is

29
Procedure of Testing

Error in the reading on the far rod at B can

be determined by:

30
Procedure of Testing

The correct rod reading d’ at the far rod

(held at B) for a horizontal line of sight:

31
Procedure of Testing

Similarly, the error in the reading on the

near rod at A is

32
Procedure of Testing

The correct rod reading c’ at the near rod

(held at A) for a horizontal line of sight

33
Procedure of Testing

To check the computations, the difference in

elevation computed from the two corrected
rod readings (c’ and d’) should be equal to
the true difference in elevation (a-b).
Thus,
(a-b)= (c’-d’)

34
Making the Adjustment
The adjustment is then made with instrument
still in position at point P. The horizontal cross
half is moved up or down accordingly by means
of the capstan-headed screws, one screw is
loosened slightly and the opposite one is
tightened a similar amount, thus moving,
apparently, the position of the horizontal cross
half on the leveling rod. This is continued until
the desired reading (d’) is obtained. Several
trials may be necessary to get an exact reading.
The horizontal pair of capstan screws should be
left untouched to avoid disturbing the previous
35
 Curvature and Refraction

It is based upon the principle that if

the line of sight of the instrument is
not horizontal, it will deviate up or
down in direct proportion to the
horizontal distance from the
instrument to the rod.

36
The effects of the earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are taken
into account in leveling work since the measurements are made in
vertical planes and these effects all occur in the same plane. The
combined effects are represented in Figure 16-2. Due to the earths’
curvature, a horizontal line departs from a level line by 0.0785m in one
kilometer, varying as the square of the length of the line. This
expression for earth curvature is based on the mean radius of the earth
which is about 6371km. In the given figure the vertical distance
between the horizontal line and the level line (or BD) is a measure of the
earth’s curvature.
Curvature and Refraction
▫ Atmospheric refraction varies with
atmospheric conditions.
▫ Under ordinary conditions, it is approximately
equal to 0.0110m in one kilometer, also
varying directly as the square of the length of
the line.
▫ The angular displacement resulting from
refraction is variable. It depends upon the
angle the line of sight makes with the vertical
and surrounding atmospheric conditions.
38
Curvature and Refraction
The combination of the earth’s curvature and
▫atmospheric
  refraction causes the telescope’s
line of sight to vary from a level line by
approximately 0.0785 minus 0.0110 or 0.0675m
in one kilometer, varying as the square of the
sight distance in kilometer. This may be
represented by a mathematical equation as
follows:
h’ = 0.0675
Where:
h’ is the departure of a telescope line of sight from a level line (in meters)
K is the length of the line of sight (in kilometers).
The value 0.0675 is called the coefficient of refraction. Its value actually varies to 39
a
 TWO-PEG TEST. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the
following observations are taken:

M is equidistant from both A and B, while P is 2.50m away from A

Curvature along the extension of line AB and 79.27m from B.
and Requirements:
Refraction a) Determine the true difference in elevation between points A
: and B.
Illustrativ b) Check if the line of sight is in adjustment.
e c) If the instrument needs to be adjusted, determine the
Example following: “false” difference elevation, inclination of the line of
sight, and the error in the reading on the far rod.
d) With the level still set up at P, determine the rod reading on B
to which the line of sight should be adjusted. Explain how the line
of sight should be adjusted.
40
 Meridians
The direction of a line is usually defined by
the horizontal angle; it makes with a fixed
reference line or direction. In surveying,
this is done with reference to a meridian
which lies in a vertical plane passing
through a meridian which lies in a vertical
plane passing through a fixed point of
reference and through the observer’s
position.
43
I. True Meridian
▫ Sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic
meridian.
▫ It is the generally adapted reference line in surveying
practice.
▫ This line passes through the geographic north and south
poles of the earth and the observer’s position.
▫ Since all true meridians converge at the poles, they are
not parallel to each other.
▫ The direction of true meridian at a survey station is
invariable and any record of true directions taken
remains permanent and unchanged regardless of time.
▫ Lines in most extensive surveys are usually referred to
the true meridian.
▫ This meridian is also used for marking the boundaries of
44
II. Magnetic Meridian
▫ A magnetic meridian is fixed line of reference which lies
parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth.
▫ Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic
needle of a compass held at the observer’s position.
▫ Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true meridian
since they converge at a magnetic pole which is located
some distance away from the true geographic poles.
▫ Since the location of the magnetic poles changes
constantly, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not
fixed.
▫ As a line of reference the magnetic meridian is
employed only on rough surveys where a magnetic
compass is used in determining directions. 45
III. Grid Meridian
▫ A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference parallel to the
central meridian of a system of plane rectangular
coordinates.
▫ One central meridian, coincides with a true meridian, is
usually selected and all other meridians are made
parallel to this meridian.
▫ In this process, the need to calculate the convergence of
meridians when determining positions of points in the
system is eliminated.
▫ The use of grid meridians is applicable only to plane
surveys of limited extent.
▫ In such types of survey, it is assumed that all
measurements are all projected to a horizontal plane and
46
that all meridians are parallel straight lines.
IV. Assumed Meridian
▫ An assumed meridian is an arbitrarily chosen
fixed line of reference which is taken for
convenience.
▫ This meridian is usually the direction form a
survey station to an adjoining station or some
well-defined and permanent point.
▫ It is used only on plane surveys of limited
extent since they are difficult or may be
impossible to re-establish if the original
reference points are lost or obliterated.
47
Expedient Methods of
Establishing Meridians

Units of Angular
Measurement

Designation of North Point

Reporter:
48
The Compass

Types of Compasses

Magnetic Declination

Reporter: Sing, Mika Vernadeth

49
 The Compass
▫ It is a hand-held instrument for determining
the horizontal direction of a line with
reference to the magnetic meridian.
▫ There are 3 essential features of the
magnetic compass: compass box, line of
sight, and the magnetic needle.

50
The Compass

▫ Compass Box
It has a horizontal circle which is graduated
from 0 to 90 degrees in each quadrant.
▫ Line of Sight
It is usually fixed along the index mark on
the north graduation of the circle.

51
The Compass

▫ Magnetic Needle
The compass needle is of magnetized
tempered steel balanced at its center on a
jeweled pivot so that it swings freely in a
horizontal position.

52
 Types of Compasses
Brunton Compass
Lensatic Compass
Surveyor’s Compass
Plain Pocket Compass
Prismatic Compass
Forester’s Compass
Transit Compass
53
Types of Compasses

Brunton Compass
One of the most versatile and widely used.
It combines the main features of a prismatic,
sighting, hand level, and clinometer.

54
Brunton Compass

55
Types of Compasses

Lensatic Compass
It was designed for military use such as in
reconnoitering, determining directions,
orienting maps, artillery fire direction control,
and other uses where magnetic azimuths are
required.

56
Lensatic Compass

57
Types of Compasses

Surveyor’s Compass
It was popularly used earlier for running
limited plane surveys of reasonable accuracy.
It is now commonly used for forest surveys, in
retracting old land surveys, and in geological
exploration.

58
Surveyor’s Compass

59
Types of Compasses

Plain Pocket Compass

It is similar to the surveyor’s compass,
except that it has no sight vanes. There are
used in reconnaissance and exploratory
surveys.

60
Plain Pocket Compass

61
Types of Compasses

Prismatic Compass
It is extensively used for preliminary
surveys of roads, rough traverses, etc. Some
prismatic compass are filled with liquid which
are widely used by sailors for navigation at
sea.

62
Prismatic Compass

63
Types of Compasses

Forester’s Compass
It is best suited for forestry surveys as well
as geological and other similar exploratory
surveys.

64
Forester’s Compass

65
Types of Compasses

Transit Compass
It is mounted on the upper plate of the
transit and often used to check horizontal
angles and the directions measured or laid off
during transit surveys.

66
 Magnetic
Declination
The horizontal angle and direction by which
the needle of a compass deflects from the true
meridian at any particular locality.

67
Variations in Magnetic
Declination

Isogonic Chart

Use of the Compass

Local Attraction

Magnetic Dip
Reporter:
68
 Variations in Magnetic
Declination
The changes in direction of the magnetic
meridian at any given place is not constant. It
is subject to cyclic fluctuations which vary over
a certain period of time, these can be
categorized as daily, annual, secular, and
irregular.

69
Daily Variation
▫ Also called diurnal variation, is the change of
the compass needle through a cycle from its
mean position over a 24-hour period.
▫ Extreme eastern position of the needle
usually occurs early in the morning, and the
extreme western pointing occurring just after
noon time.
▫ Daily variation is greater in higher latitudes
than near the equator, and direction of
swing is opposite in both hemispheres.
▫ The swing of the needle is more in summer
70
Annual Variation

▫ Another form of periodic swing taken

by the magnetic meridian, usually
amounts to only less than 1 minute of
arc and thus considered negligible.

71
Secular Variation
▫ It is a slow, gradual, but unexplainable shift
in the position of the Earth’s magnetic
meridian over a regular cycle.
▫ The meridian swings like a pendulum in one
direction for about 150 years and gradually
comes to a stop and then swings back in the
opposite direction.
▫ Secular variation is important to the
surveyor because of its magnitude. It is
considered when checking or retracing old
survey lines whose directions were
established with a magnetic compass. 72
Irregular Variation

▫ This type of variation is uncertain in

character and cannot be predicted as to
amount or occurrence. They usually amount
to a degree, at high altitudes.
▫ Most likely to occur during magnetic storms
and disturbances associated with sun spots,
and when auroral displays occur.

73
 Isogonic Chart
▫ It is a chart or a map which shows lines
connecting points where the magnetic
declination of the compass needle is the
same at a given time.
▫ Lines that are drawn on such a chart are in
turn referred to as isogonic lines.

74
 Isogonic Chart
▫ For some parts of the chart, the magnetic
declination are zero and the lines connecting
them are called agonic lines.
▫ On an agonic line, the magnetic needle
defines true and magnetic north along the
same direction.
▫ Correspondingly, in areas west of the agonic
line, the needle has an easterly declination;
those east of the line, a westerly declination. 75
Isogonic Chart

76
 Use of the Compass

Adjust your declination, in most

locations magnetic north and true north
differ by a few degrees. 77
 Use of the Compass

The compass is held level and the

needle screw is released to allow the
needle to swing freely about its pivot
78
 Use of the Compass

When the needle comes to rest, the

magnetic bearing is read by noting
where the north end of the needle
points on the graduated scale

79
 Local Attraction
▫ It is any deviation of the magnetic needle of
a compass from its normal pointing towards
magnetic north.
▫ Local attraction at a particular point may be
constant, or may vary depending upon
surrounding magnetic influences.
▫ Objects made of steel or iron such as
reinforcing bars, fences, buried pipelines,
and even moving vehicles may considerably
affect the compass needle. 80
 Local Attraction
▫ Taping arrows, steel tape, range poles made
of steel, steel helmet, and power
transmission lines dangling overhead may
have a distorting effect on compass
readings.
▫ At a particular point, a fixed local attraction
draws the needle away from the magnetic
meridian by a certain amount. It follows that
all the readings taken from that point will
have the same amount of error due to the
disturbance. 81
 Local Attraction

▫ In order to detect local attraction, the

forward and back magnetic bearings of
each line are read, usually at its ends.
▫ Local attraction is present if the two
observed directions differ by more than the
normal observational errors.

82
 Magnetic Dip
▫ The magnetic dip is a characteristic
phenomenon of the compass needle to be
attracted downward from the horizontal
plane due to the Earth’s magnetic lines of
force.
▫ Causes the compass to tend to dip in
higher latitudes.
83
Magnetic Dip

84