Types of Men according to

Pythagoras

 Lovers of Wisdom - who can simply to look on

 Lovers of Honor – who come to compete
 Lovers of Gain – who come to buy and sell
 Types of Logic
 Syllogistic logic
 Propositional logic
 Predicate logic
 Modal logic
 Informal reasoning and dialectic
 Mathematical logic
 Philosophical logic
 Computational logic
 Non-classical logic
 Branches of Philosophy

 Metaphysics, which deals with the fundamental questions of reality.

 Epistemology, which deals with our concept of knowledge, how we learn
and what we can know.
 Logic, which studies the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation
 Ethics, or moral philosophy, which is concerned with human values and
how individuals should act.
 Aesthetics or esthetics, which deals with the notion of beauty and the
philosophy of art.
Historical Development of
Logic
Logic is a language for reasoning. The word “logic” comes from the greek
term “logikos”, which means “word”, but has deeper resonances of
intelligibility or ordered thought. Logic is formally defined as the science
which addresses the validity of inference and demonstration. The deeper
understanding of logic, however, is more nuanced and reveals its
enduring appeal to philosophers and its influence on computer science,
and ultimately the field of artificial intelligence.
The origins of logic can be traced back to the works of Aristotle who lived
during the fourth century BC. His thoughts on logic are spread across six
works collectively known as the “Organon”.
 Aristotle wanted to establish rules which would allow Greek citizens to
distinguish arguments which are formally valid and correct from those
which are invalid and therefore wrong. Two fundamental laws of
Aristotelian logic are the law of noncontradiction and the law of the
excluded middle.
The law of noncontradiction states that no proposition can be both true
and false and the law of the excluded middle says that a proposition must
be either true or false.
Aristotle designed his formal logic to be able to determine the validity of
an argument regardless of the matter being discussed. The engine of
Aristotle’s formal logic was the syllogism — a form of argument with two
premises and a conclusion such as “All men are mortal, Socrates is a man,
therefore Socrates is mortal”
 Aristotle’s logic, though foundational, was not by modern standards a
robust system, and over time it began to exhibit serious formal defects
and an over reliance on the deductive syllogism
The Stoics contribution to logic went virtually unnoticed for centuries
until medieval philosophers such as Albert of Saxony and Pohl of Venice
concentrated on shoring up Aristotelian logic and making incremental
contributions of their own.
However, the advance of science demanded new systems of thought and
the English philosopher Francis Bacon formulated a system that
challenged the orthodoxy of Aristotle’s Organon.
 Gottlob Frege a was an unknown, somewhat obscure scholar in his own
day, and a mathematician who took it upon himself to demonstrate that
the laws of arithmetic were ultimately reducible to logic — a position
known as “logicism” — and along the way he made the greatest single
contribution to the study of logic in the history of the discipline.
He was the first to identify the distinction between the logical axioms and
rules which are necessary to make a deduction. He took the first steps
towards making logic axiomatic. He created the propositional function
and he refined Aristotle’s concept of quantification.
 Frege’s monumental work “The foundations of arithmetic” profoundly
influenced the English philosopher Bertrand Russell who wrote Principia
Mathematica with his mentor Alfred North Whitehead.
Next to Aristotle’s Organon, Principia Mathematica is undoubtedly the
most influential book on logic ever written. In it Russell took up the
development of logicism that Frege had set in motion.
German mathematician David Hilbert was an avid student of the Principia
Mathematica and in the early 1920s he formulated a proposal for

formalizing mathematics in axiomatic form .

Alan Turing is considered to be one of the fathers of artificial intelligence.
He wrote a paper describing what is now known as the “Turing Test”. The
test involves a person asking questions via terminal to both a person and
a intelligent machine. He states that if the person could not tell the
machine apart from the person, the machine was somewhat intelligent.
In 1955, Newell, Simon and Shaw from Carnegie Institute of Technology
developed “Logic Theorist”, considered by many to be the first artificial
intelligence program. The program was a decision tree system for finding
proofs for mathematical theorems. The impact that the Logic Theorist
made on both the public and the field of artificial intelligence has made it
a crucial stepping stone in developing the artificial intelligence field.