Cell

A cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy and when two or more cells are connected in
series, that cell becomes battery . There are two types of cells : Primary and Secondary

Primary

A primary cell which produces electrical energy and after few hours of working becomes inactive is called
primary cell. These cells are generally we used in torch, radio etc. Basic primary cells are Voltaic Cell, Daniel
Cell, Lechlanch Cell, Dry Cell etc.

Secondary

A secondary cell which is used repeatedly to produce electrical energy after charging it is called
secondary cell. These cells are generally we used in mobile, ups, inverter etc. Basic secondary cells are Lead Acid
Cell, Edison Cell. Nickel Cadmium Cell etc.

Primarily a cell is constructed by using metals ( Zinc @ -ve charge , Copper @ +ve charge ) and
electrolyte solution ( H2SO4 ). Metal is in the form of rod or plate structure and H2SO4 + H2O ( Water is used for
sulphuric acid dilution ) acts as electrolyte used for chemical reaction.

ω Bulb
- +
Zinc Rod
( Zn )
H2SO4
Vessel

Copper Rod
( Cu )

In electrochemical reaction + ve terminal is called anode

- ve terminal is called cathode
Working

The glass vessel contains H2SO4, as we insert Zinc Rod init due to chemical reaction Hydrogen gas bubbles
form around it. The reaction is as:

a. The H2SO4 break into three ions : two H+ ( Hydrogen ) ions and one SO4-- ( Sulfate ) ion.
a.
H2 SO4 2H+ + SO4 - -

b. At the same moment Zinc loses 2e- to become Zn++ ions.

Zn Zn++ + 2e

c. Then this Zn++ ions combine with the SO4-- ion to form ZnSO4 ( Zinc Sulfate) which dissolves in the
acid.

Zn++ + SO4 -- ZnSO4

d. The electrons from the Zinc Rod combine with the hydrogen ions to form H2 molecules ( Hydrogen
Gas ) in the form of bubbles on the zinc rod.

2H+ + 2e H2

In this way, e- flow from Copper Rod to Zinc Rod inside the vessel and Zinc Rod to Copper Rod outside the
vessel. The EMF of the cell is around 1.08 Volts. This is Voltaic Cell invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta .
Daniel Cell

The worlds first useful cell developed by Prof . Daniel in 1836. The working and
construction is as follows:
Copper Rod
Porous Pot
CuSO4
Crystal
H2SO4 1.Copper vessel contains CuSO4 solution.
Zinc Rod 2.Upper part has a chamber filled with CuSO4 crystals, help for
CuSO4 immunity in the solution.
3.A porous pot is kept into copper vessel with zinc rod.
Vessel 4.Copper rod acts as anode and Zinc rod acts as cathode .

a. The H2SO4 break into three ions : two H+ ( Hydrogen ) ions and one SO4-- ( Sulfate ) ion.
a.
H2SO4 2H+ + SO4 --

b. At the same moment Zinc loses 2e- to become Zn++ ions.

Zn Zn++ + 2e

c. Then this Zn++ ions combine with the SO4-- ion to form ZnSO4 ( Zinc Sulfate) which dissolves in
the acid.

Zn++ + SO4 - - ZnSO4

d. The CuSO4 breaks into two ions : one Cu++ and one SO4 --

CuSO4 Cu++ + SO4 --

e. At the same moment Cu++ combines with liberated 2e

Cu++ + 2e Cu

This cell can produce up to 1.1 Volts

 Lechlanch Cell Dry Cell

Carbon Rod Vent Seal

Porous
Vessel Carbon Rod
MnO2 Powder
Coarse Cloth
NH4Cl Bag
Power Mixture
Zinc Rod
Zinc Pot
Glass Vessel
Paste

Power Mix = MnO2 + C + NH4CL +

ZnCl2
Paste = NH4Cl + ZnCl2 + Plaster

A glass vessel filled with NH4Cl. A zinc rod is immersed of Paris of Lechlanch cell. It has paste in
It is modification
into glass vessel. A porcelain pot with carbon rod and place of electrolyte solution. Due to this type of
MnO2power is placed into glass vessel. construction, we can place it in any position.

Carbon road acts as anode and zinc road acts as cathode.
It has zinc pot filled with paste of NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and
Plaster of Paris. The Plaster of Paris provide toughness
to the paste. Then a carbon rod with brass cap is
immersed into coarse cloth bag filled with power mixture
of MnO2, Carbon, NH4Cl and ZnCl2 in the ratio of 10 : 10 :
2 : 1. This mixture acts as electrolyte. Coarse bas is
placed into zinc pot.

This cell is then sealed and a small hole is made in the

top cover for gas escape.

The O/P voltage is of 1.5 Volts.

Chemical reaction of Lechlanch Cell and Dry Cell is as follows :

a. NH4Cl brake into two ions : One NH4+ and One Cl-

NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl-

b. At the same moment Zinc loses 2e- to become Zn++ ions.

Zn Zn++ + 2e

c. Then Zn++ combines with two Cl- inos

Zn++ + 2Cl- ZnCl2

d. 2NH4 + 2e 2NH3 + H2

H2 + 2MnO2 Mn2O3 + H2O

2Mn2O3 + O2 4MnO2
Lead Acid Cell

Generally there are two types of lead-acid batteries on the basis of their construction method. These are either
Flooded or Sealed. All lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen gas during charging, that is called
electrolysis. These gases are allowed to escape through vent however in the sealed cell gases are recombined but if
gas pressure is high internal valve regulates its pressure.

Flooded lead acid batteries are those where the electrodes called plates are immersed in electrolyte.
During the charging process, gas form which is vented to the atmosphere, distilled water must be added to manage
the electrolyte level.

e.g. 12-V automobile battery.

Sealed lead acid batteries confine the electrolyte, but have a vent or valve to allow gases escape if
pressure exceeds a certain level. During charging, a lead-acid battery generates oxygen gas at the positive
electrode. These batteries are designed in such way that generated gas is captured and recombined in the battery. The
valve-regulated battery is the most common type of sealed battery. These batteries are developed for less
maintenance practice. So it is called maintenance free batteries.

e.g. UPS battery

Construction

It consists of hard rubber container. There are two types of plates in the group. One is +ve plate group
and another is –ve plate group. –ve plates are one more plate than +ve plate. Due to this each +ve plate from
both the side remain active. These plates are in the form of mesh and that mesh is of lead. In the mesh read lead
is deposited. To support these plates hard rubber blocks are used. For –ve and +ve plate separation, hard rubber
or wood is used. Diluted H2SO4 is used as electrolyte. These +ve and –ve plate groups are connected to terminals
outside the battery marked as P and N or +ve and –ve or red color for +ve and black color for –ve. There is a
vent on the top of the cover.
 Vent - Plug

- +
Hard Rubber
Container
- Ve Plate

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Chemistry

Generally in the lead-acid cell , the negative electrode is made by lead ( Pb ) and the positive electrode is made by
lead peroxide ( Pb02 ) . These electrodes or say plates are deposited into diluted H 2 SO 4 ( H 2 SO 4 + H 2 O ) . There
are two processes to be occurred discharge and charge.

Discharging is the process of providing energy ( current ) to the load and charging is the process of providing
current to the battery for to come back to original state.

During the discharge process At + ve electrode PbO2 + H2SO4 PbSO4 + H2O

At - ve electrode Pb + H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2H+

After all the sulfuric acid exhausted, only electrodes and water is present which has no more
capacity to provide the charge for load. In this state, the cell is said to be fully
discharged. In a lead- acid cell, the charge is determined by acid strength ( H2SO4 ). This strength is
easily checked by a device called a hydrometer which measures the specific gravity (density) of the
electrolyte.

During the charging process At +ve electrode PbSO4 + H2O + O- - PbO2 +

H2SO4

At - ve electrode PbSO4 + 2H+ Pb + H2SO4

If the EMF of the cell has reduced upto 1.8 Volts due to the regular use, it is required to
recharge it. For this process DC power supply is connected to battery according to the polarity i.e.
+ve to +ve and –ve to –ve of DC power supply to battery respectively. During the charging, the cell
revert back to original position.
Electrolyte : Medium that conducts charge
Ions : Positively charged or negatively charged atoms
Oxidation : Any reaction in which electrons are lost.
Reduction : Any reaction in which electrons are gained.
Anode : - ve Terminal
- ve Electrons are released from this electrode to the electrolyte internal to the battery
Cathode : + ve Terminal
+ ve Electrons in the electrolyte are collected by this electrode
Electrochemical Cell Simple Battery Contains two electrodes (Anode and Cathode) immersed in a medium that conducts
charge

One battery cell can produce 2 . 1 volts

12 volt battery has 6 cells

12 volt battery can produce 12 . 6 volts

Cell Connection
The group of cell is battery, so according to that the symbol of cell and battery is as follows :

+ - +

-
Cell Battery
The rating or capacity of the battery is expressed in Ampere – Hours ( Ah ). Batteries are of various ratings ranging
from 1 Ah to 144 Ah. Generally 72 Ah, 108 Ah and 144 Ah batteries are used.

If we take a battery of 4 Volt 2 Ah then, the battery can provide 4 volts with 2 amp for 1 hour or 4 volts with 1 amp
for 2 hours. With the same if we have 12 volts battery with the rating of 144 Ah then, it can provide 12 volts with
144 amp for 1 hour or 12 volts with 1 amp for 144 hours. But in practice a normal battery can not supply more than 20
to 25 A current.

We can connect batteries in series as well as parallel. The connection system is just like resistors what we connect
In series as well as parallel. But in this we take care of polarity.

+ -

+ +- - + -

+ - + -
Series
Parallel
In series cell connection we can obtain more voltage called e . m . f . than a single cell where current is constant. Where
as in parallel cell connection, we obtain more current than a single cell where voltage called e . m . f . remains same.

To get total e.m.f. in series circuit

E T = nE ET : Total e.m.f. ( Volts )

n : Number of cells
E : e.m.f. of one cell

e.g. If we connect three 1.5 volts cell in series then the total e.m.f. i.e. ET is

ET = nE n = 3 E = 1.5 Volts

then ET = 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 Volts

To get total e.m.f. in parallel circuit

ET = e ET : Total e.m.f. ( Volts )

e : e.m.f. of one cell

e.g. if we connect three 1.5 volts cell in parallel then the total e.m.f. i.e. ET is

ET = e e = 1.5 volts

then ET = 1.5 volts

Remember that, if the battery or cell is ideal then the voltage remains same and if the battery or cell is connected
to load then the voltage is dropped by the load. The flow of current will produce a voltage drop across each
resistance in the circuit.

As we know that each component has some resistance power, the same thing applied with cell or battery. So the
resistance property of cell or battery is called internal resistance of cell or battery.

To calculate the internal resistance r = ES– V / I r : Internal resistance

ES : Source voltage
V : Voltage drop( V = IR )
I : Current
 e.g. The voltage of cell is 1.5 volts in ideal condition ( i.e. no load ) and if we connect this cell to 5 ohm
load then the voltage drop is 1.25 volts, then what is the internal resistance of cell.

r = ES – V / I r : internal resistance
ES : source voltage
V : voltage drop ( V = IR )
I : current

therefore r = ?
ES = 1.5 volts
V = 1.25 volts
I = ?

first we find I ( current ), according to ohms law I = V / R

I = 1.25 volts / 5 ohm

I = 0.25 amp

So r = 1.5 volts – 1.25 volts / 0.25 amp

r = 0.25 / 0.25

r = 1 ohm

To find total internal resistance in series cell circuit rT= nr n : number of cells
r : internal resistance of one cell

To find total internal resistance in parallel cell circuit rT = r / n

To find circuit current in series cell circuit I = ET / rT + R

To find circuit current in parallel cell circuit I = E / R + rT

e.g. If we connect 12 cells in series with 2 volt of each cell with the internal resistance is 0.2 ohm, and
the load is 10 ohm. Then what is the circuit current.

So to find I in series circuit, the formula is I = ET / rT + R

I = current
ET = total voltage
rT = total internal resistance
R = load resistance

First we find total voltage ET = nE = 12 cells x 2 volts = 24 volts

Second we find total internal resistance rT = nr = 12 cells x 0.2 ohm = 2.4 ohm

Then I = ET / rT + R = 24 / 2.4 + 10 = 24 / 12.4

= 1.93 amp

The series circuit current is 1.93 Amp

e.g. If we connect 12 cells in parallel with 2 volt of each cell with the internal resistance is 0.2 ohm, and
the load is 10 ohm. Then what is the circuit current.

So to find I in parallel circuit, the formula is I = E / R + rT

First we find E E = 2 volts

Second we find rT rT = r / n = 0.2 / 12 = 0.016 ohm

Then I = E / R + rT = 2 / 10 + 0.016 = 2 / 10.016

= 0.199 amp

The parallel circuit current is 0.199 Amp

To calculate the capacity of the battery ( i.e. how long it will work with full load ) the formula is

Capacity = Ampere x Hour

e.g. If the battery can supply 7.5 amp current for 8 hours with 6 volts, then what is the capacity

Capacity = Ah A = ampere
h = hours

Capacity = 7.5 x 8 = 60 Ah

i.e. This battery can provide 6 volts with 60 amp current for 1 hour or 6 volts with 1 amp for 60 hrs.

If the with the above same configuration, the current drop ( drain ) is 5 ampere then how long the battery
will work.

Battery life ( in hours ) = Capacity / Current Drain Capacity = 60 Ah

Current Drain = 5 Amp

Battery life = 60 / 5

Battery life = 12 hrs

Charging Techniques
Secondary cells are required to charge as they get inactive. The charging is done only by DC source. Those methods are
as follows:

Constant Voltage Method

In this method voltage is kept constant. Initially dynamo is used. The magnitude is kept constant in this method. The
e.m.f. of dynamo is always greater than the battery e.m.f.. If we want to charge more than one battery, connect all in
parallel. Rheostat is used to maintain magnitude of current. An ampere meter is used for current indication. In this
process the e.m.f. of the dynamo remains constant, so the method is called constant voltage method. The connection
diagram is as follows :

DC Fuse A

Battery under charge

Rheostat
Constant Current Method

In this method the magnitude of current is at 1/10th of the battery. Rheostat is used to maintain magnitude of current.
An ampere meter is used for current indication. Bulbs are used to regulate the current. The connection diagram is as
follows:
 DC Fuse A

Battery under charge

ω ω ω ω

Rheostat
Trickle Charging Method

This method is used when battery is not capable for charging due to uncharged or below the discharge level. In this
method charging is done at a very low charging current nearly about 2 % of the discharge current.

Now a days ready made battery chargers are used which consists of Transformer, Rectifier, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Voltage
and Current Controller.
Maintenance

Regular maintenance of Lead – Acid battery is necessary. The instructions are as follows:

1. Normal charging / discharging current rate is 12 A or 1 / 10th of Ah.

2. New battery should be used regularly.
3. At least once in a week battery must be discharged and recharge.
4. Only distilled is used. And it must added to battery to fully dip the plates.
5. +ve as well as –ve terminals must be cleaned.
6. Relative density of electrolyte is not less than 1.18.
7. Vent plugs are removed during charging.

Relative density or so called specific gravity is measured by hydrometer.

Solar Cell

Solar cell is a semiconductor device which

has capacity to convert visible light, IR
and or UV light directly into electrical
energy. To do this special semiconductors
are used Amorphous Silicon, Gallium –
Arsenide and Cadmium – Selenium. All these
semiconductor substances are light
sensitive. But apart from those substances
Crystalline - Silicon is most commonly
used. The e.m.f. or say voltage is directly
depends on two factors :

1.Atomic Structure of the substance and

2.Crystalline structure of the same
substance.
ar Cell Connection – Parallel and Series

+ - + - + -

+ - + - + -

+ - + - + -

Silver Oxide Cell

This one type of most commonly used cell generally used for Calculator, Watch, Toys etc. and also called as
Button Cell due to its shape.

Advantages of this cell is

1.Very small size.

2.Good working condition at high temperature.
3.Has very good resistance to shock and vibration.
4.Very long working capability.
5.