MKPP 2333: ENHANCED OIL

RECOVERY
By:
Amirasariyati Binti Sufian MKP151064
Khairun Niza Binti Baharaldin MKP161019
Nurathirah Binti Hasbullah MKP161010
Suzanna Juyanty Binti Mohd Jeffry MKP161011
Chapter 3: Displacement in Linear
Systems
Waterflood Performance
Viscous Waterflood
Chemical Flooding
Displacement of Slugs
Dispersion during Miscible Displacement
Viscous Fingering
 3.1 Learning Outcomes

• Students should be able to:

– Understand the fundamental concepts of EOR
processes using simple mathematical models
– Use the frontal advance theory to predict
waterflooding performance
– Understand the applications of frontal advance
theory to viscous waterflooding and chemical
flooding
– Understand the dispersion and viscous fingering
concepts
 3.2 Waterflood Performance – Frontal
Advance Equation

• Frontal advance or Buckley-Leverett equation describes the oil Typical plot for fractional
displacement by water in a linear system: flow vs. saturation
𝑑𝑥𝑆𝑤 𝑞𝑡 𝜕𝑓𝑤
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝜑 𝜕𝑆𝑤 𝑆=𝑆𝑤
• Integrating the equation yields:
𝑞𝑡 𝑡 𝜕𝑓𝑤
𝑥𝑆𝑤 =
𝐴𝜑 𝜕𝑆𝑤 𝑆𝑤
𝜕𝑓𝑤
• Calculation of fractional flow of water: 𝜕𝑆𝑤
𝑘𝑤
𝜇𝑤
𝑓𝑤 = xSw = location of water saturation,
𝑘𝑜 𝑘𝑤
𝜇𝑜 + 𝜇𝑤 Sw measured from x = 0, ft
A = cross sectional area, ft2
• Assumptions: Φ = porosity
o The rock is homogeneous qt = injection rate, bbl/d
o Flow is linear and horizontal fw = frictional flow of water
o Immiscible phases t = time from the beginning of
injection, days
o No gas saturation Siw
o The water in the rock is initially at interstitial water saturation, Siw
o Each Sw travels at constant velocity
o Negligible capillary pressure effects
o Negligible gravitational forces
 3.2 Waterflood Performance – Frontal
Advance Equation
• Defining the dimensionless parameters below:
Saturation profile Saturation history
𝑥 x = linear distance, ft at tD = 0.15 at xD = 0.5
𝑥𝐷 =
𝐿 xD = dimensionless
distance from origin
𝑞𝑡 𝑡 tD = dimensionless
𝑡𝐷 = time
𝐴𝜑𝐿

• The dimensionless distance/time graph (Fig 3.2)

shows movement of water saturations:
o Siw<Sw<Swf travel at same velocity and located
at flood front path
o Region ahead of flood front has uniform
saturation
o Saturation more than Swf travel at slower
velocities (decrease in slopes) – spreading
waves
o Can construct 2 graphs: Saturation profile
(graph of locations of all saturations along a
cross section at fixed time) and Saturation
history (saturation vs. time at xD)
 3.2 Waterflood Performance – Frontal
Advance Equation

Saturation profile at Saturation history at

specific tD specific xD

Flood front
or “shock
wave”

• Before breakthrough: Np = stock tank barrels of oil displaced, STB

Volume of oil = Volume of water injected 𝑆𝑤 = average water saturation
Siw = interstitial water saturation
• At breakthrough: A = cross sectional area, ft2
Φ = porosity
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑖𝑤 𝐴𝜑𝐿Τ𝐵𝑜 L = length, ft
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
 3.2 Waterflood Performance -
Displacement of Interstitial Water
Location of
boundary
between
injected and
interstitial
Interstitial water is
During waterflooding, water
chemically distinct from
injected water displaced
the injected water but is
interstitial water and oil
miscibly displaced

No mixing between
Volume of interstitial
injection and interstitial
water is conserved & no
fluids – have distinct
water is displaced from
boundary & travel at
the linear system
constant velocity

Expansion occurs
because interstitial water
added to this region as Expanding
the flood front advances region
at constant velocity (Fig occupied by
3.9) interstitial
water
 3.3 Viscous Waterflood in a Linear System

Injection of
• Waterflood displacement efficiency is affected by the
viscous fluid
viscosity ratio of the displaced to the displacing fluid is more
• Injection of viscous fluid is beneficial for reservoirs containing attractive in
viscous oil (displacement of interstitial water or previously reservoirs
injected water is neglected) with viscous
oil
µw = viscosity of water phase
General Description: µo = viscosity of oil phase

Assumptions:
• Injected fluid is viscous but miscible with the interstitial /
previously injected water (lower viscosity)
• Viscous fluid not to be adsorbed to the rock Locations of
• No mixing between the viscous fluid and the low viscosity saturation
resident water discontinuity
• A boundary exists between viscous and displaced water
where there is a jump in viscosity value µw to µ *w

• It is resident water, rather than the injected viscous fluid

that forms the flood front
• A second saturation discontinuity (shock front) is formed at
viscous water/resident-water boundary due to its
discontinuity in viscosity
 3.4 Viscous Waterflood in a Linear System

Np = stock tank barrels of oil displaced,

STB
• Oil recovery during a viscous waterflood:
𝑆𝑤 = average water saturation
Siw = interstitial water saturation
𝑁𝑝 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑖𝑤 A = cross sectional area, ft2
= Φ = porosity
𝐴𝜑𝐿 𝐵𝑜
L = length, ft
• When interstitial water is considered, same assumptions Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
µw = viscosity of water phase
applied as general viscous waterflooding
µo = viscosity of oil phase
µ *w = viscous water
 3.5 Chemical Flooding in a Linear System

• Chemical species must be added in waterflooding to make it viscous, in order to enhance

displacement performance because fractional-flow curves are altered.
• Chemical species example:

Micellar, alkaline Polymers such as The idea…

& soap like polyacrylamide or
substances polysaccharide

reduce surface
tension between improve sweep
oil and water in efficiency
the reservoir

• Adding surfactants to the injected water can alter the shape of the fractional-flow curves by
decreasing IFT and can change the end points of the curves by reducing the ROS.
• The use of frontal-advance theory is to estimate the displacement performance of chemical
floods, such as polymer and surfactant floods.
 3.5 Chemical Flooding in a Linear System

3.5.1. Transport of Chemical Species in Porous Rock

 Transport of chemical species -> apply material-balance
concept on this chemical species entering & leaving element

 Above eq. describe the movement of a sharp concentration

front through the porous rock.
 Ratio of injected to retain chemical concentration, fraction:

Incremental element of porous rock.

 Retained Species i or polymer at concentration Ci0 in fluid:
Ai = amount of Species i retained at Cii
Assumption:
Ci = concentration of species i
1. Restriction to 1D, isothermal, two-phase flow
Cii = injected concentration of species i
2. Single chemical species is added to the injected fluid Ci0 = initial concentration of species i
3. Dispersion, of fluid mixing is neglected Di = ratio of injected to retained chemical
4. Gravity & capillary forces and viscous fingering is neglected concentrations
5. Incompressible fluid assumption fw = fractional flow of water
6. No mass transfer between oil and water phase Sw = water saturation
tD = dimensionless time
xD = dimensionless distance of x direction
ρgr = grain density
Φ = porosity

3.5.2. Movement of Interstitial and Injected Water
 A consequence of the assumptions made to develop the fractional-
Dashed line
Concentration profiles showing the
effect of retention in porous rock for
step-function concentration changes.
Locations of denuded & interstitial
water during a chemical flood initiated
at interstitial water saturation.
3.5 Chemical Flooding in a Linear System
flow model for Species i is that the chemical species travels slower
than the water in which it was injected.
 Injection of water containing Species i into a porous rock
completely saturated with water.
 If Species i is not retained, the concentration profile at tD is given
by the dashed line.
 When Species i is retained, the concentration profile is given by
the solid line.
 The area between the 2 curves represents the amount of
species absorbed by the rock.
 The model assumes that Species i is removed instantaneously
as the chemical front advances, and thus, “denuded” water flows
ahead of the chemical front where it displaces resident water.

Polymer Flood of a Linear
System Initially at Interstitial
Water Saturation
High molecular weight polymers increase the
viscosity of water significantly when concentrations
on the order of a few hundred ppm are dissolved in
water
Polymer solutions are not believed to alter relative
permeability curves, the improvement in oil
recovery is a result of an increase in viscosity
(viscous water flooding)
All polymers adsorb, or are retained on porous
rocks to some degree, the relationship between
polymer retention on the rock & the concentration
of the polymer in solution must be known.
As long as the adsorption isotherm has negative
curvature, the sharp-front assumption used in
chemical flooding model applies
Estimation of polymer flood performance when the
initial water saturation is uniform by immobile
follows the general procedure outlined
3.6 Application of the Chemical Flooding
Model
Low-Tension Flood of a
Linear System Initially at
Interstitial Water Saturation
Addition of certain chemicals to the injected water
can reduce IFT between the injected fluid and the
oil
A low tension flood is one in which the IFT is on
the order of 10e-3 dynes/cm or lower
The required chemicals usually mixtures of
surfactants & cosurfactants
Mixture of chemicals is treated as single
component
Reduction of IFT between 2 fluids in porous rock
has 2 effects on rel perm curves
1. Rel perm curve has less curvature
2. Reduction fo the ROS from Sor, the waterfloow
residual oil, to Sorc, the residual saturation to the
low-tension flood
Fractional-flow curve representing the low-tension
oil system will shift toward higher water
saturations, & will have different curvature
Low-Tension Flood of a
Linear System Initially at
ROS
In this reservoirs, there is little oil flow in the regions
swept by large volumes of water
Injection of a low-tension chemical system can
mobilize the residual oil, creating a growing oil bank
that is displaced through the system by a chemical
shock
A chemical shock forms with the same values of
(f*w3, S*w3) & (fw1, Sw1), forming an oil bank with
water saturation Sw1
Because the oil in front of this bank is immobile, a
second shock is created where Sw1 increase
abruptly to 1-Sor
The specific velocity of this oil-bank shock is the
slope of the line connecting Sw1 with 1-Sor
Oil-bank shock moves faster than all other
saturations in the saturation profile
 3.6 Application of the Chemical Flooding
Model

Polymer Flood of a Low-Tension Flood of a

Low-Tension Flood of a
Linear System Initially Linear System Initially
Linear System Initially
at Interstitial Water at Interstitial Water
at ROS
Saturation Saturation
 3.7 Displacement of Slugs

• Frontal-advance theory can be applied to investigate the use of a chemical slug rather than
continuous injection. The chemical slug is displaced by a drive fluid that is assumed to be miscible
with the slug.
• For example, viscous water or polymer can be displaced by water containing no injection chemical.

3.7.1. Piston-Like Displacement
 The viscosity of the viscous fluid is large enough so that
f*w3 ~= 1.0 and S*w3 ~= 1- Sor
 When the flood begins at interstitial water saturation and
Sw1< Swf
 The dimensionless velocities of the flood front and the
saturation shock are given below;

= specific velocity of S*w3, chemical qt = flow rate, B/D

solution saturation discontinuity
= waterflood ROS, L3/L3, volume
fraction
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
Ф = porosity, fraction
fw1 = fractional flow of water in oil bank preceding viscous or
chemical flood saturation discontinuity, volume fraction
Sw1 = water saturation in oil bank preceding chemical flood
saturation discontinuity, volume fraction
Siw = interstitial water saturation, volume fraction
 3.7 Displacement of Slugs

3.7.1. Piston-Like Displacement

Displacement of an Adsorbing Displacement of a Chemical

Slug Slug That Does Not Desorb
Some chemical species retained by the rock
Desorption process is identical to the absorption desorb at such a slow rate retention process 
process. irreversible

When a chemical (polymer or surfactant), adsorbs or

is retained on the rock by the equilibrium process, it Desorption of that chemical into the drive water
will desorb when contacted with drive water is negligible.
containing no chemical.

The concentration profile is square wave that travels The slug decreases continuously in size (but not
through the linear system at a specific velocity. concentration)

The drive water initially travels at a specific velocity

that is faster than the velocity of the rear of the The chemical small enough  will disappear
chemical slug but is slowed down because the before it reaches the end of the linear system
chemical specified desorb into the drive water.
 3.7 Displacement of Slugs

3.7.2. Non-Piston-Like Displacement

 S*w3 ≠ 1- Sor  two phase flow region exist behind the
viscous flood front.
 Ideal case – if the mobility of the drive fluid is equal to
the mobility of the chemical slug and absorption or
desorption do not affect viscosities and permeabilities,
the slug will be displaced through the porous rock as if
the slug were infinite.
 The specific velocity of the drive water at any saturation
is larger than the specific velocity of the saturation
behind the viscous flood front.
 Thus, the drive water cuts into the rear of the saturation
profile, forming a saturation discontinuity between the
drive water and the viscous fluid.
 3.8 Dispersion During Miscible
Displacement

3.8.1 General Descriptions of the Dispersion Process

 In all miscible processes, mixing occurs between the displacing and displaced fluids. That is,
there is dispersion between the different fluids. This dispersion dilutes the displacing fluid
with the displaced fluid and thereby affects the phase behaviour.

 Fig (a): The concentration that we

expected according to mobility ratio
equal to one and no gravity effect.

 Fig (b): S-shaped concentration

profile resulted from mixing, or
dispersion of solvent and oil in the
tube. At first, solvent is produced at
low concentration. This is followed
by a period of sleepy rising
concentration and finally by a
period where effluent concentration
gradually approaches injected
Profile of the Solvent Effluent Concentration Produced from a Capillary concentration.
Tube in an Equal Viscosity and Density
 3.8 Dispersion During Miscible
Displacement
3.8.1 General Descriptions of the Dispersion Process
Longitudinal dispersion
 It occurs in the direction of primary flow-i.e., along
the axis of flow
Transverse dispersion
 It occurs In a direction perpendicular to flow
Mixing of Solvent and Oil by Longitudinal and Transverse
Dispersion
 One of the layers is much more
permeable than the other such that
solvent, which is injected across the left
face of the model, mostly enters only the
permeable layer.
 The solvent and oil have the same
viscosity and density. In this experiment,
the solvent not only mixes with the oil by
longitudinal dispersion in the direction of
flow; it also mixes with oil transverse to
the direction of flow in the less
permeable.
 If concentration were measured in situ
through the section marked AA, an S-
shaped concentration profile again
would be found. This mixing transverse
to the direction of flow is called
“Transverse Dispersion”.

3.8.2. Mechanism and Model of Longitudinal Dispersion Phenomena
Molecular Diffusion
Is present in all systems in which
miscible fluids are brought into
physical contact.
The diffusion process is molecular
in nature; i.e., it results from the
random motion of molecules in
solution.
Diffusion is dominated dispersion
mechanism if flow rates are very
low in a porous medium. At rates
that commonly exist in reservoir
displacement processes, however,
dispersion also results from bulk
flow or convection phenomenon.
Fick’s law apply:
3.8 Dispersion During Miscible
Displacement
Velocity Profile (Taylor)
Series of Mixing Cells
Effect
Taylor showed that dispersion that Fluids perfectly mixed in the mixing
occurs during the miscible cells or tanks.
displacement process in a straight
capillary tube. Fluid B (solvent) enters a pore
(Tank1) from the left. There is no
Assume that fluid A is initially in the concentration gradient in the tank.
capillary and that the fluid B
No concentration difference
displaces fluid A. between the effluent fluid
Assume further that the flow rate is concentration of the tank and fluid
low so that flow is laminar. The in the tank. The mixed fluid from the
velocity profile radially across the first pore enters to the next pore.
capillary tube would have the So such model will lead to
parabolic form which can be dispersion of fluid B into fluid A as
calculated by; the displacement process
continuous.
And the maximum velocity occurs at
the center of tube.
Dispersion Porous Medium Being Viewed
as a Series of Mixing Tank
 3.8 Dispersion During Miscible
Displacement
3.8.2. Mechanism and Model of Longitudinal Dispersion Phenomena
Stagnant Pocket
Fluid B displaces fluid A, the part of fluid A that is
in the main flow channel is displaced directly by
fluid B.
However some part of fluid A are in in stagnant
pockets or dead end pores- i.e., pore spaces that
are connected to the main channels but through
which there is no flow.
This quantity of fluid A is not displaces directly but
is initially bypassed by fluid B. Displacement of
this bypassed fluid does occur slowly as a result of
molecular diffusion between the main flow channel
and the stagnant pocket.
The trapping of fluid in
dead-end pores is termed
“capacitance.”
Stagnant Volume Models The Effects of Capacitance
Variation in Flow Path
Dispersion of fluid B into fluid A can result from the
variation of flow paths through the media
encountered by different fluid particles
Visualize two separate particles (very small
quantities) of fluid B located at point 1.
As flow progresses, the particles moves
downstream to point 2 but by slightly different
paths through the medium. Because the flow
paths are different, the particles arrive
downstream at different time.
Dispersion Caused by Variation of Flow
Paths in Porous Medium
 3.8 Dispersion During Miscible
Displacement

3.8.3. Deviations From Ideal Behavior

Viscous Fingering
•Viscosity of Fluid B is less than that of the displaced Fluid A. Fluid B tend to
channel or finger into Fluid A.
•The apparent value of Kl, longitudinal dispersion coefficient increase significantly.
•Flows in fingers is mixed with bypassed fluid, creating a much longer mixing zone
•An unfavorable viscosity ratio in an increase in the apparent dispersion, the
magnitude becoming larger.

Asymmetry of Tail
•The data fit as straight line on an error-function plot over part of the concentration
range, but then deviate from a straight line at higher or lower concentration
•Factor 1 – dead-end PV  a fraction of the pore volume has openings to the
pores but no exist. No bulk flow through such pores, and fluid trapped in the
pores can be removed only by molecular diffusion.
•Factor 2 – the presence of a second, immiscible or partially soluble phase and
permeability heterogeneities.

Multiphase Systems
•As the saturation of a phase decrease, the dispersion of miscible species in the
phase increase.
•That is, the presence of a second phase increase the apparent magnitude of the
dispersion coefficient over values obtained in a single-phase system.
•The amount of dispersion in a phase also is affected by the wettability of the
phase
 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.1. Instability in the displacement fronts Concept

1. Stable / uniform displacement front – efficient

displacement process
 M≤1
 the gravity does not influence the displacement by
segregating the two fluids
 The displaced fluid is displaced efficiently ahead of the
displacing fluid
 the displacing fluid does not penetrate into the displaced
fluid other than by molecular dispersion and dispersion

1. Unstable / non-uniform displacement front - viscous

fingering
 M>1
 large viscosity contrast between the displacing fluid (i.e.
water) and the displaced fluid (i.e. oil) causes a large
mobility ratio (unfavourable M)  promotes the
fingering of water through the more viscous oil  early Viscous instability starts when M >1 &
breakthrough  poorer oil recovery magnitude of fingering more
pronounced when M increases.
 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.2. Criterion for Onset on Viscous Fingering

Assumptions:
 Flow is single phase
 No effect of gravity on the flow
 solvent displaces oil linearly from a
porous medium that initially is fully
saturated with oil
 dispersion is negligible.
 the front should be remain a plane
Objective
surface throughout the displacement
 To determine the conditions under which ε in the absence of heterogeneity
grows in time
 if ε does grow in time  the front
will be unstable; i.e. viscous finger
will form along the front
 If ε does not grow or even diminishes
in size  the front stability or
uniformity will be maintained
 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.2. Criterion for Onset on Viscous Fingering

Application of Darcy’s equation in the unperturbed region is given by:

Where,

and front velocity is,

Solving velocity front gives,

 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.2. Criterion for Onset on Viscous Fingering

With the definition we get:

eq. (1)

A similar analysis applied to the perturbed area gives:

eq. (2)

Subtracting eq. (1) from eq. (2) and carrying out some algebra manipulation gives:

ε = initial length of perturbation

Provided that ε << Xf, therefore:
t = time
 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.2. Criterion for Onset on Viscous Fingering

Conclusions:
 Perturbation, once formed will grow or decay depending on the M
 ε will grow exponentially if M > 1.0 because delta p is a negative value  viscous
finger flow
 If M < 1.0, the ε will decay exponentially  stable, non-fingering flow

 Fingers will grow if the displacing fluid is more mobile than the displaced fluid and
vice versa
 Capillary and gravity forces are not considered in this analysis  may affect the
stability of the displacement front and may reduce fingering
 3.9 Viscous Fingering
3.9.3. Dispersion in the presence of Viscous Fingering

 Koval developed a model for

predicting the performance of miscible
displacements in the presence of
viscous fingers.
 He defined an effective viscosity ratio,
E, that characterizes the effect of
viscous fingering:

Koval method/ K-factor method

 He determined breakthrough volumetric describe the performance of miscible
displacement efficiency in displacement when the M > 1
homogeneous linear system as a
function of E
 References & Further Reading

• Willhite, Green; “Enhanced Oil Recovery”, SPE Textbook Series

• http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/c/chemical_flooding.aspx
• SPE 835: The Application of the Buckley-Leverett Frontal Advance
Theory to Petroleum Recovery
• Buckley-Leverett; “Mechanism of Fluid Displacement in Sands”, SPE,
1941
• http://perminc.com/resources/fundamentals-of-fluid-flow-in-porous-
media/chapter-5-miscible-displacement/fluid-properties-miscible-
displacement/macroscopic-displacement-efficiency/mixing-fluid-
dispersion/