Instrumentation & Measurements

Basic Course Outline:

• Introduction to Basic Instrumentation Concepts
• Calibration of Instruments (Types of Errors, Error Compensation)
• Analog and Digital Recording Instruments (DMM, Oscilloscope, etc.)
• Signal Conditioning Circuits (Bridges, Op-Amps, Filters, etc.)
• Sensors and Transducers (Temperature, Pressure, Strain, Flow, etc.)
• Statistical Methods Used for Measurements

Dr. Memoon Sajid

Assistant Professor
G-07, Faculty of Electrical Engineering
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
Phone # +923468710421
Email : memoonsajid@gmail.com
Office Hours: 10:00 am to 12:00 pm (Mon-Fri)
Digital Signal Conditioning
Curtis D. Johnson, Chapter 3
Digital electronics and digital computers have taken a major role in nearly every
aspect of life in our modern world.

Everyday things like automatic door openers in stores, motion sensors in security
systems, and seat-belt warning systems are implemented with digital electronics.
All these digital electronic systems require data to be presented to them in a digital
format (i.e., the data have to be digitally conditioned).

The use of computers is in automobiles, washing machines, airplanes, and a vast host
of other examples.

You should realize that there is no greater accuracy in using digital techniques to
represent data; in fact, accuracy is usually lost.
But digital data are much more immune from spurious influences that would cause
subsequent inaccuracy, such as noise, amplifier gain changes, power supply drifts,
and so on.
Use of computers in control systems is particularly valuable for a number of other
reasons, however:
1. A computer can control multivariable process-control systems.
2. Nonlinearities in sensor output can be linearized by the computer.
3. Complicated control equations can be solved quickly and modified as needed.
4. Networking of control computers allows a large process-control complex to operate
in a fully integrated fashion.

2.2 Fractional Binary Numbers

Special controllers for industry called programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

These devices are particularly suited to the solution control problems associated with
Boolean equations and binary logic problems in general.

They are a computer-based outgrowth of relay sequence controllers.

data lines carry data to and from

the processor
address lines allow the computer to
select external locations for input and
output

control lines carry information to and

from the computer related to
operations, such as reading, writing,
interrupts, and so on

This collection of lines is called the

bus of the computer.
3.1 Comparators

https://www.analogictips.com/faq-use-op-amp-comparator/
https://www.analog.com/en/analog-dialogue/articles/amplifiers-as-comparators.html#
Open-Collector Comparators

advantages

1. It is possible to use a different power

source for the output.

2. It is possible to OR together several

comparators’ outputs by connecting all
opencollector outputs together and then
using a common pull-up resistor. If any one
of the comparator’s output transistors is
turned ON, the common output will go low.
 Hysteresis Comparator

If the signal voltage has noise or approaches the reference value too slowly. The
comparator output may “jiggle” back and forth between high and low as the reference
level is reached.
This problem can often be solved by providing a dead band or hysteresis window to the
reference level around which output changes occur.
Once the comparator has been triggered high, the reference level is automatically
reduced so that the signal must fall to some value below the old reference before the
comparator goes to the low state.
Need of Sine Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
2-level SPWM
3-level SPWM
3.2 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs)

Bipolar DAC

Conversion Resolution
 Q: Find the reference voltage required to obtain a full 10 V output from the
DAC!

DAC Structure
Generally speaking, a DAC is used as a black box.
No knowledge of the internal workings is required.
There is some value, however, in briefly showing how the conversion is implemented.
The simplest conversion uses a series of op amps for input for which the gains have
been selected to provide an output as given earlier.
The most common variety uses a resistive ladder network to provide transfer function.
DAC Characteristics

Digital input Typically, digital input is a parallel binary word

Power supply The power supply is bipolar at a level of ±12 to ±18 V

Reference supply A reference supply is required to establish the range of output

voltage and resolution of the converter. This must be a stable, low-ripple source. In
some units, an internal reference is provided.

Output The output is a voltage representing the digital input

Offset Because the DAC is usually implemented with op amps, there may be the
typical output offset voltage with a zero input.

Data latch Many DACs have a data latch built into their inputs. When a logic command
is given to latch data, whatever data are on the input bus will be latched into the DAC,
and the analog output will be updated for that input data.

Conversion time A DAC performs the conversion of digital input to analog output
virtually instantaneously. From the moment that the digital signal is placed on the
inputs to the presence of the analog output voltage is simply the propagation time of
the signal through internal amplifiers.
 Discussion on Mid-Term
(NEED PRACTICE!)
• Q-1: Sensitivity and Zero Drift. (59%)
– (a) Sensitivity at 2 temperatures. Slope for linear.
– (b) Zero and sensitivity drift @ 35ºC. Subtract.
– (c) Drift/kg/ºC. Divide by temperature difference.
• Q-2: V = K1K2P. Likely max error in pressure. (63%)
– P = V/K1K2. Error in Product (K1K2). Then Error in
Quotient. Max possible error (V/K1K2)(E1+E2+E3) while
like max error = (E12+E22+E32)1/2. Considered both!
• Q-3: Same as question 2. (38%)
 Discussion on Mid-Term
• Q-4: Main difference in digital storage and digital
sampling oscilloscope. Affected parameter. (24%)
– Location of ADC and Op-Amp is swapped.
– Frequency bandwidth is affected.
– Op-amp limits bandwidth. If ADC 1st, better bandwidth
• Q-5: DC bridge with a distant (100 m away)
sensor. (90%)
– Had to multiply the distance by 2 to calculate the total
wire resistance. Deducted 0.5 marks for single side.
 Discussion on Mid-Term
• Q-6: Design band-pass filter with specified
attenuations for different frequencies. (37%)
– Slide 46, Example 15. Similar covered in class.
– First find fL using formula for HPF and 0.2 attenuation
– Then find fH using LPF formula and 0.1 attenuation
– Formulae were not given but you did not need to
memorize them, they can be derived in 5 minutes.
– Then assume CL and find RL using RLCL = 1/(2*pi*fL)
– Then find RH using given “r”, & then find CH like above
– Then find signal attenuation using given formula
 Discussion on Mid-Term
• Q-7: Design signal conditioning circuit. (61%)
– Pressure range 50-150 psi => Voltage 5-15 V (100mV/psi)
– Needed voltage output = 0-2.5 V
– Gives us two equations: 0=5m+Vo and 2.5=15m+Vo
– We find (Gain) m = 0.25 and (offset) Vo = -1.25 V
– Vout = 0.25Vin – 1.25 or Vout = 0.25(Vin – 5)
– Can use any of the above two equations to make circuit
– Have to consider output impedance of the sensor (2.5k)
in the design
• Can use a voltage follower to eliminate its effect on the circuit
• Or can use it as the input resistance to calculate gain of opamp
 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)

The ADC will find a fractional binary number that gives the closest approximation to the
fraction formed by the input voltage and reference.

The uncertainty is given by

 Bipolar Operation

8 bits with a 10.0-V reference,

Conversion time is a very important characteristic of ADCs.

A typical ADC does not produce the digital output instantaneously when the analog
voltage is applied to its input terminal.
The ADC must sequence through a process to find the appropriate digital output, and
this process takes time.
This is one of the reasons that handshaking lines are required (start/stop conversion).
ADC Structure Most ADCs are available in the form of integrated circuit (IC) that can
be used as a black box in applications. To fully appreciate the characteristics of these
devices, however, it is valuable to examine the standard techniques employed to
perform the conversions.
MSB
Ramp ADC
• They essentially compare the input voltage to a linearly increasing ramp voltage.
• A binary counter counts ramp steps until the ramp voltage equals the input.
• The output of the counter is then the digital word representing analog input.
• The ramp itself is typically generated by an op amp integrator circuit.

Dual slope converters

The principle of operation is based on allowing the input signal to drive the integrator for a
fixed time,T1, thus generating an output of:

Then a negative slope is generated and the counter starts with negative slope and stops when
the negative slope becomes zero and so on…
No need to go into the details of construction of these ADC types.

And, there are other types but we don’t need to get into details of each and every one.
Conversion-Time Consequences
If the input is changing while conversion is taking place, errors will occur.
Consequently, the ADC output will be in error if the magnitude of the input voltage
changes by more than one LSB voltage, del V , during the time of conversion, τc.

This is a serious limitation!

Usually in microcontrollers these days, we do not have to calculate these things ourselves.
Maximum samples per second are given in the datasheets of the controllers. For example,
DSPIC30FXXX has a built-in 1 MSPS (mega samples per second) ADC.
Frequency based converters

Converting the sensor signal into a variable frequency and then using this frequency
as input to a counter for a fixed interval of time.
The output of the counter is then a measure of the frequency and thus sensor signal.
1. A resistor or capacitor in the above circuit can be replaced by a resistive or capacitive sensor.

2. Usually sensors with output in terms of change in capacitance are interfaced with this. WHY?

3. Measuring frequency using a microcontroller is much cheaper and easier than capacitance!
DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

Microprocessor-based personal computers (PCs) are used extensively to implement

direct digital control in the process industries.
1. Remember using ADC in PIC microcontroller?

2. Select the ADC channel from which data is input.

3. Send command “start conversion” to convert into digital

4. Keep checking/polling the status of conversion “end of

conversion” flag

5. Stop conversion and read and store the digital converted

data from ADC

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL DATA
Sampled Data Systems

We have only discrete knowledge of the value in time.

That is, the computer control system takes only periodic samples of the variable value.
Thus, we are ignorant of the value or variation of the variable between samples.
For the control system to function correctly, certain conditions must be assumed about
variations between samples.

Sampling Rate
Measurement Signal Transmission
Alan S. Morris, Chapter 10.
10.2 Electrical Transmission

The simplest method of electrical transmission is to transmit the measurement signal as

a varying analogue voltage.
However, this mode of transmission often causes the measurement signal to become
corrupted by noise.
To avoid such corruption, the signal can be transmitted as a varying current instead of as
a varying voltage.
An alternative solution is to transmit the signal by superimposing it on an A.C. carrier.

10.2.1 Transmission as Varying Voltages

As most signals already exist in an electrical form as varying analogue voltages, the
simplest mode of transmission is to maintain the signals in the same form.
However, electrical transmission suffers problems of signal attenuation and also
exposes signals to corruption through induced noise.
Special measures have to be taken to overcome these problems.

Signal amplification for high SNR Shielding of the signal wires against noise
10.2.2 Current Loop Transmission

The signal-attenuation effect of conductor resistances can be minimized if varying

voltage signals are transmitted as varying current signals.
This technique also provides high immunity to induced noise and uses currents in the
range between 4 and 20 mA to represent the voltage level of the analogue signal.
It requires a voltage-to-current converter which is commonly known as a 4- to 20-mA
current loop interface.

Can be used to transmit

commands in addition to data.
0
Current range for command
transmission is different than data.

Can also transmit power supply over

the same wires below 3.6 mA range

Currents over 21 mA are used to

detect faults like short circuit.
10.2.3 Transmission Using an a.c. Carrier
Another solution to the problem of noise corruption in low-level d.c. voltage signals is to
transfer the signal onto an a.c. carrier system before transmission and extract it from
the carrier at the end of the transmission line.
Both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) can be used for this.
Amplitude modulation consists of translating the varying voltage signal into variations
in the amplitude of a carrier sine wave at a frequency of several kilohertz.
After shifting the d.c. signal onto a high-frequency a.c. carrier, a high-pass filter can be
applied to the AM signal.
This successfully rejects noise in the form of low-frequency drift voltages and mains
interference.
At the end of the transmission line, demodulation is carried out to extract the
measurement signal from the carrier.
Frequency modulation achieves even better noise rejection than AM and involves
translating variations in an analogue voltage signal into frequency variations in a high-
frequency carrier signal.
Voltage-to-frequency conversion circuit can be used for this purpose
10.3 Pneumatic Transmission

In recent years, pneumatic transmission tends to have been replaced by other

alternatives in most new implementations of instrumentation systems
Although, many examples can still be found in operation in process industries.
Pneumatic transmission consists of transmitting analogue signals as a varying
pneumatic pressure level that is usually in the range of 3–15 p.s.i.

Pneumatic transmission has the advantage of being intrinsically safe, and it provides
similar levels of noise immunity to current loop transmission.
Disadvantage of using air as the transmission medium is that the transmission speed is
much slower than electrical or optical transmission.

Pneumatic transmission is found particularly in pneumatic control systems where

sensors, actuators, or both are pneumatic.
10.4 Fiber-Optic Transmission

Light has a number of advantages over electricity as a medium for transmitting

information.
For example, it is intrinsically safe, and noise corruption of signals by neighboring
electromagnetic fields is almost eliminated.
The most common form of optical transmission consists of transmitting light along a
fiber-optic cable, although wireless transmission also exists.
Apart from noise reduction, optical signal attenuation along a fiber-optic link is much
less than electric signal attenuation along an equivalent length of metal conductor.
However, there is an associated cost penalty because of the higher cost of a fiber-optic
system compared with the cost of metal conductors.

Fiber-optic cables are used for signal transmission in three distinct ways.
First, relatively short fiber-optic cables are used as part of various instruments to
transmit light from conventional sensors to a more convenient location for processing.
Second, longer fiber-optic cables are used to connect remote instruments to controllers
in instrumentation networks.
Third, even longer links are used for data transmission systems in telephone and
computer networks.
Wireless Transmission

Wireless telemetry allows signal transmission to take place without laying down a

physical link in the form of electrical or fiber-optic cable.

This can be achieved using either radio or light waves to carry the transmitted signal

across a plain air path between a transmitter and a receiver.

Point-to-point telemetry uses a narrowly focused, fine beam of light (usually laser),

which is used commonly for transmission between adjacent buildings.

Directed telemetry transmits a slightly divergent beam of light that is directed toward

reflective surfaces, such as walls and ceilings in room. Max distance 20 m. TV Remote

Diffuse telemetry is similar to directed telemetry but the beam is even more divergent.

This increases the area of coverage but reduced transmission speed and range.
10.6 Radiotelemetry (Radio Wireless Transmission)
Radiotelemetry is normally used over transmission distances up to 400 miles, although
this can be extended by special techniques to provide communication through space
over millions of miles.
10.7 Digital Transmission Protocols

Digital transmission has very significant advantages compared with analogue

transmission because the possibility of signal corruption during transmission is

reduced greatly.

Examples of Protocols you have experienced/heard of are:

1. IEEE LAN

2. CDMA in telecommunication

3. SERIAL (UART/USART)

4. I2C

5. SPI

6. CAN etc.