EARTHQUAKES AND THEIR EFFECTS

▪ Earthquakes - are vibrations of the earth’s crust caused by sudden and

violent subterranean movements.
▪ During an earthquake, the ground surface moves in all directions and
the most damaging effects on stationary structures are generally caused
by movements parallel to the ground surface.
1.1 HOW EARTHQUAKES WORK
▪ Earthquake (seismic event) – is the vibration of the earth’s surface that
follows a sudden release of energy in the crust.
▪ Vibration (seismic waves) emanate from the location of the energy
release and travel through the earth’s mass.
1.1 HOW EARTHQUAKES WORK
▪ Large earthquakes can cause a number of hazardous actions.
1. Simple motion of the ground surface – up and down and sideways.
2. Cracks, Subsidence, vertical slip, horizontal slip, soil liquefaction, and
earth slides on slopes.
1.2 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
EARTHQUAKES
▪ To determine the potential for building damage, the following aspects
of ground motion must be considered:
1. The direction of the motion.
2. The displacement of the neutral position.
3. The acceleration of the motion.
4. The general form of the cyclic motion in terms of its duration and the
frequency or period of the motion.
1.2 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
EARTHQUAKES
▪ It takes a number of coincident factors to produce a damaging
earthquake. A primary consideration is the magnitude of the
earthquake.
▪ Magnitude may be measured by the level of actual observed damage,
which is the basis for the Mercalli method.
1.2 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
EARTHQUAKES
▪ The earthquake itself is commonly measured by the numerical scale
first developed by Richter. This is a log-based scale that assigns a
number that earthquake watchers have come to recognize as
minor (2)
moderate (4)
severe or higher (6)
1.3 SEISMIC RISK
▪ A condition of risk involves two other major concerns as well.
 The first concern regards the existing conditions of the building site.
 The second concern regards the risk presented by a building improperly
constructed for the required level of resistance to earthquakes.
▪ Clear identification of risk is necessary first step toward planning new
construction for better earthquake resistance.
1.3 SEISMIC RISK
Acceptable Response
▪ The meaning of safety and acceptable response is quite complex when
disastrous force actions are considered.
▪ Designers must define a building’s particular level of qualified response
and then quantify the magnitude of force that relates to that response.
1.4 LIFE SAFETY
▪ A primary concern with regard to design for earthquake resistance and
the primary concern of regulatory building codes is life safety.
▪ For designers, this means contending with the potential for structural
failures, nonstructural construction failures, and such secondary
failures.
1.4 LIFE SAFETY
Structural Failures
▪ Failure of the building structure may occur from any of several loadings,
including that of the seismic effect.
▪ For earthquakes, the major load-resisting system is the lateral load-
resisting structure.
▪ Resistance is both qualified and quantified.
Qualification provides for the nature of loading.
Quantification relates to the degree of severity of the
earthquake.
1.4 LIFE SAFETY
Nonstructural Failures
▪ Much of building construction is not essentially involved in load
resistance. The designer views this as nonstructural and it involves the
rest of the people in the building design team.
▪ It includes suspended ceiling, overhead lighting fixtures, sprinkler
piping or HVAC ducts falling on the heads of the occupants below which
is definitely a safety problem.
1.4 LIFE SAFETY
Secondary Failures
▪ It includes gas explosions, shorts in electrical power systems and
release of toxic sewer gases.
▪ Another type of secondary effect is the possibility of failure from one of
the many significant aftershocks that follow a major earthquake.
1.5 DAMAGE TO STATIONARY
STRUCTURES
▪ Vertical movements may also cause problems. When the ground
supporting a building moves rapidly downward and then suddenly stops
and start upward, the momentum of the building produces a downward
jolting force that adds to the effect of gravity.
▪ The repeated up and down movements cause supported elements to
bounce off their supports, an action described as dancing.
1.5 DAMAGE TO STATIONARY
STRUCTURES
▪ Derived structural theories, laboratory experimental studies, forensic
studies of damaged buildings and general experience provide a basis for
planning new buildings with some confidence in their resistance to
earthquakes.
1.6 POST-EVENT RECOVERY
▪ The performance of a building during an earthquake is the primary
focus of designers and is of major concern to the building owners and
users.
▪ Equal concern to the owners and occupants is the ability to use the
building after the earthquake. These concerns are:
1. Post-Event Usage and Occupancy
2. Extent of and Time for Restoration
3. Feasibility of Restoration
4. Localized Versus General Damage
CHAPTER 2
SEISMIC RESPONSE OF BUILDINGS AND SITES
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF BUILDINGS AND SITES

FORCE ∝ WEIGHT
dead weight of the structure

determines the character of the dynamic

response the structure will make

▪ Fundamental Period of Vibration

- determined by the mass, stiffness and size of the structure

▪ Energy Efficiency

- determined by the elasticity of the structure

FIGURE 2.1 SPECTRUM RESPONSE GRAPH
FIGURE 2.2 MOTION OF A TALL BUILDING DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
FIGURE 2.3 FORM OF SEISMIC RESPONSE RELATED TO FUNDAMENTAL
PERIOD OF THE BUILDING
EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
ON BUILDINGS
BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR
EARTHQUAKES
 FORMS OF SEISMIC RESPONSE
Levels of Response

• Minor Effect
• Significant Response
• Major Response
• Severe Response
•Extreme Response
MINOR EFFECT
SIGNIFICANT RESPONSE
MAJOR RESPONSE
SEVERE RESPONSE
EXTREME RESPONSE
TYPES OF FAILURE
• Structural Failure
•Nonstructural Failure
• Trauma for Occupants
• Downtime for the building or site
2.4 STRUCTURAL
RESPONSES
2.4 STRUCTURAL RESPONSE
- The typical building exists as a vertical projection from the ground surface, to which it
is securely attached. As such, its responses can be visualized in the form of shear,
moment, and deflected shape diagrams, as shown in the illustrations.
- A structure requires resistance sufficient to withstand shear and moment effects.
- Seismic loads are generated by the dead weight of the building construction.
▪ The direct action of horizontal forces may result in a building sliding off its foundation, so it is of
concern to have adequate resistance for the foundation itself.

▪ One form of bending effect is overturning moment which may result to a building tipping over - with
or without its foundation. This has much to do with building’s vertical profile. Buildings that are
relatively squat in form are unlikely to fail, while those with tall, slender forms are highly vulnerable.
▪ Seismic actions produces more than a single loading of the structure, as in the case of gravity-loaded
beams. The effects of shear, bending and deflection effects are actually reversed then repeated that result
to loosening of connections, progressive cracking of brittle materials or simply shaking the building part.

▪ These techniques of building construction focus on direct resistance to gravity forces.

 BRACING

▪ Which of these bracing techniques is chosen depends on the scale and complexity of the
framework, on the materials and form of frame elements, and on architectural planning
and construction detailing.
PROPAGATION OF LATERAL LOADS
2.5 STRUCTURAL
FAILURES
2.5 STRUCTURAL FAILURES
Structural design involves a process of elimination of ALL reasonably considered possibilities
for its failures. We will concentrate on the possible ways a structure can fail under the
action of an earthquake.

▪ STABILITY FAILURES
- Stability is the first response factor that should be considered for any structure. For many
structures not consciously designed to resist earthquake effects, this lack of basic inherent
stability is a major flaw.

▪ STRESS FAILURES
- A primary concern is the accumulation of stresses beyond the resistance capability of the
materials of the structure.
 For seismic resistance, designers must consider how materials respond to dynamic effects. Two major
factors are involved in these considerations:

 ENERGY CAPACITY
 STRESS REVERSAL

▪ DEFORMATION FAILURES
- Any loading on a structure produces some amount of deformation. Much of non structural damage
experienced in earthquakes can be attributed to the deformation of a structure, rather than to its
strength failure.
- Deformation is typically a combination of stress development in the materials plus overall
reconfiguration of structure. Thus, both material choice and structural form are involved.
▪ SECONDARY FAILURE
- It is the sequential response actions that occur before the complete failure of a structure. It may also
be a failure of one structure that can precipitate the failure of another, which in turns precipitates the
failure of another, and so on.

▪ CONNECTION FAILURE
- It is a failure caused or developed from the joints between the elements of a structure. Failures of
roof-to-wall, floor-to-wall, wall corner, and building-to-foundation connections account for many
building collapses. Design of these connections is a major part of engineering design for seismic
response.
 Typically, the majority of the building
construction is not considered to provide
lateral bracing. Instead, it is there to anchor
the building for wind effects and to add to the
seismic force by its mass.
While the basic lateral-resistive
structure is the first line of defence and
justifiably the prime concern for seismic
resistance, everything in the building
construction should be resistive to seismic
force.
 Non-structural walls, suspended
ceilings, window frames, curtain walls
and decorative elements should be
secure against movements during the
shaking actions. Failure here may not
lead to building collapse, but it still
constitute danger for occupants and
requires costly replacement or repair.
Loss of stucco, masonry veneer, window
glass and suspended ceilings is classified
as “cosmetic “ failure by structural
engineers.
Many curtain walls and interior partitions
provide major shear wall effects, even though
there is theoretically a whole separate system
assumed to provide independent bracing. This
situation results in two potential problems that
have been the source of much damage in recent
earthquakes.
1. Due to stiffness, the nonstructural
construction may receive a share of the
lateral force for which it does not have
sufficient resistive strength.
2. Coincident structural action of nonstructural
elements may modify the behavior of the
lateral bracing structure.
The nature of the response of the building structures to
various force actions has much to do with the materials
of construction. This has partly to do with the various
properties of the materials themselves and partly to do
with the products and assemblages that are made from
them. In the case of seismic action generates responses
that relate to the fundamental stress and strain
behaviors of materials. These are basic concerns:

▪ Stress Resistance
▪ Strain Resistance
▪ Special Behaviors
▪ Energy Absorptions
▪ Resilience
▪ Toughness
▪ Response to Cyclic Loading
▪ Effect of Load Duration
• Wood –is used primarily in form of boards,
structural lumber, plywood and laminated timber.
• Steel – is the most versatile structural materials,
used in some form for almost every type of
construction.
• Concrete
• Masonry
 Buildings ordinarily consist of a great number of
individual elements that are joined together to create
the whole construction. Elements of the structure
(decks, beams, columns, etc.) are connected, roof and
floor planes intersect, and the building proper is
anchored to its foundation.
Joints exist in endless variety, varying with the
size, shape and materials of the connected elements,
with the loads being transferred and with the need for
various nonstructural functions.
The weight of the building must be determined for
gravity and for seismic design. For most buildings, this
requires considerable approximation due to the number
of elements composing the complete construction.
To determine the weight of the construction the
following information is required:
1. Exact details and dimensions of the construction.
2. Properties of the materials and elements of
construction.
3. Allowance for construction elements that typically
are not precisely defined in early stage of the
building design.
 Its is sometimes necessary to consider repairing
or upgrade an existing building to improve its seismic
resistance. One such situation occurs when a building
has sustained a severe earthquake shock. It can be still
be safe for ordinary conditions, but unsafe if it were to
suffer another major seismic shock.
Upgrading may be necessary because of a
proposed remodelling or change of occupancy. It may
also required or simply desired to improve the seismic
resistance of a building that has a type of construction
that has been shown to be unsafe.
MOVEMENT OF SURFACE SOILS MAY ALSO OCCUR AS A SECONDARY FAILURE,
TRIGGERED BY THE FAILURE OF A CONSTRUCTED RETAINING STRUCTURE. A WALL
CAN BE TOPPLED BY LATERAL SEISMIC FORCE GENERATED BY THE WEIGHT OF THE
STRUCTURE PLUS THE WEIGHT OF THE RETAINED SOILS, ADDED TO THE EXISTING
GRAVITY-INDUCED LATERAL SOIL PRESSURES DUE TO THE CHANGE IN GRADE. IF
THE WALL IS TALL ENOUGH, THIS MAY BE PRODUCING A CONSIDERABLE LATERAL
SOIL MOVEMENT BEHIND THE WALL.

MOVEMENTS OF THE SURFACE GROUND MASS MAY BE PART OF A REGIONAL FAULT

OF THE SURFACE SOIL, LARGER IN SCOPE THAN A SINGLE BUILDING SITE. DESIGN
AND PREPARATION OF AN INDIVIDUAL SITE FOR THIS TYPE OF FAILURE IS PRETTY
MUCH IMPOSSIBLE, ALTHOUGH SOME SUCH MOVEMENTS MAY BE PREDICTABLE IN
CERTAIN SITUATIONS.
MINOR SURFACE CRACK IN A PAVEMENT – EXCEPT THAT IT EXTENDED MORE
THAN 800 FT THROUGH SEVERAL PROPERTIES AND UNDER SEVERAL HOUSES IN
A DEVELOPMENT BUILT OVER A BURIED STREAM BED.
In general, any site does some modification of the earthquake vibrations that pass
through it on the way to a supported structure. This may include lessening or
increasing the effects, changing the frequency or period of the vibration, or channeling
or increasing the effects, changing the frequency or period of the vibration or
channeling the effect in a particular direction. Lessening, or damping of the vibrations
is usually good and most sites do some of this. The other effects all offer some
possible increased distress for supported structures.

The most common site failures are small cracks and subsidence due to minor shifting
or consolidation of fills. These may disrupt site drainage and crack up pavements, but
often pose no serious threat to buildings, unless they occur beneath a building that is
exceptionally sensitive to vertical movements (site cast concrete and masonry
structures for example). The point to note is that a building site – both within the legal
site boundary and beyond – needs just as careful investigation for seismic response as
any structure designed for support by the site.
▪ Building foundations are transitional elements between the
building and the ground. As such, they must work as parts of
the building structural system, but they also have direct
relationships with the supporting ground. Failures can occur
for various reasons and may be difficult to fully anticipate in
design of the foundations. A primary need is for a full
discovery process regarding geotechnical conditions and the
properties of the site materials.
SITE FAILURES AFFECTING
FOUNDATIONS
▪ A common vulnerable site is one with major amounts
of unconsolidated materials at surface and near-
surface levels. These may be natural deposits, but
frequently they consist of recently placed materials,
mostly constituted as fill for construction. Movement
in these soils is common in earthquakes, and affected
structures will certainly experience some distress.
TYING OF FOUNDATIONS
▪ It is essential that the building foundation system move in unison during an
earthquake. When supports consist largely of isolated column footings, it may be
necessary to add ties to achieve this, as shown in Figure 2.32. Where extensive
below-grade construction for basements occurs, elements of this construction
may achieve some or all of this tying function.
Individual tie elements between footings may consist of reinforced
concrete elements designed for both tension and compression. Tension
is achieved by the steel reinforcement, which must be adequately
developed in the footings for anchorage. Compression requires the usual
considerations for a concrete column, including concerns for thinness.

When computed lateral loads are transferred to footings, ties may be

designed for these loads. The UBC requires that ties for piles and
caissons be designed for 10% of the vertical load on the heaviest loaded
foundation. For isolated footings that are not supports for parts of the
lateral bracing system, there is no easily quantified basis for design of
ties. For this situation, it is common to design ties on the basis of
minimum requirements for columns.
• A frequently used site structure is the cantilever retaining wall (figure 2.33) This structure is
ordinarily designed to resist lateral force, pressure generated from the soil on the high side of
the wall. A common design procedure is one where the lateral soil pressure is considered to be
developed by an equivalent fluid with a unit density of some percentage of the soil weight.
(Figure 2.33a)
• For a relatively tall retaining wall (6 ft or more from the
low-side surface level) the lateral action of an
earthquake will impel the retained soil mass against
the back side of the wall. Significant movement of the
wall permits the development of a typical slip plan
failure, providing a basis for definig of the soil mass
that should be considered for lateral seismic force. For
a tall wall, with an inclined soil surface behind the wall,
as shown in Figure 2.33b, this may constitute a
considerable lateral force.
ILAGAN, GLENDA LEE B.
ONDA, JHESSA MARIE H.
SALTIVAN, JOSHUA L.
SILANG, JANINA RUZZLE B.
SUMANGA, ANGELICA MAE B.