Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
8. POLICY
1. Invention / Initiation
2. Estimation
3. Selection
4. Implementation
5. Evaluation
6. Termination
THE AMERICAN WAY OF MAKING POLICY
Problem identified
Proposal developed
Decision-making process
Incremental
Analogizing
Segmented
Differential access
Policy networks
Bargaining / compromise
Short-run
Implementation
(Gradual unfolding of the problem and the effect of the program)
Elite
Policy Direction
Officials and
Administrators
Policy Execution
Mass
Model ini merupakan abstraksi dari suatu pembuatan
PP yang boleh dikatakan identik dengan perspektif elite
politik.
1. Society is divided into the few who have power and the
many who do not; only a small number of persons
allocate values for society; the masses do not decide PP.
2. The few who are governed are nod typical of the masses
who are governed. Elites are drawn disproportionately
fron the upper socioeconomic strata of society.
3. The movement of non-elites to the elite positions must
be slow and continuous to maintain stability and
avoid revolution. Only non-elites who have accepted
the basic elite consessus can be admitted to governing
circles.
4. Elites share a consensus on the basic values of the
social system. E.G. in the us the elite consensus
includes private enterprise, private property, limited
government and individual liberty.
5. PP does not reflect demands of the masses but rather
the prevailing values of elite. Change in PP will be
incremental than revolutionary.
6. Active elites are subject to relatively little direct
influence from aphatetic masses.
Model Inkremental : Policy As Variations On
The Past
Charles Lindblom : PP as a
continuation of past
government activities with
only incremental
modifications
merupakan kritik pada
model rasional.
Para pembuat kebijakan pada dasarnya tidak mau
melakukan peninjauan secara ajeg terhadap seluruh
kebijakan yang dibuatnya. Mengapa ..?
1. Tidak punya waktu, intelektualitas, maupun biaya
untuk penelitian tehadap nilai-nilai sosial masyarakat
yang merupakan landasan bagi perumusan tujuan
kebijakan.
2. Adanya kekhawatiran tentang bakal munculnya
dampak yang tak diinginkan sebagai akibat dari
kebijakan yang belum pernah dibuat sebelumnya.
3. Adanya hasil-hasil program dari kebijakan sebelumnya
yang harus dipertahankan demi kepentingan tertentu.
4. Menghindari konflik jika harus melakukan proses
negosiasi yang melelahkan bagi kebijakan baru.
INCREMENTALISM :
Policy
Increment
Past Policy
Commitments
Influence of
Group B Public
Policy
Alternative Policy
Policy Position Change
Equilibrium
Kelompok kepentingan yang berpengaruh diharapkan
dapat mempengaruhi perubahan kebijakan negara.
Tingkat pengaruh kelompok kepentingan tersebut
ditentukan oleh jumlah anggotanya, harta kekayaannya,
kekuatan dan kebaikan organisasinya, kepemimpinannya,
hubungan yang erat dengan para pembuat keputusan,
kohesi intern para anggotanya dan sebagainya.
2. RESOURCES
A. Staff : size – lack of staff, skill – poorly trained
staff, shortage of people with management skills;
new programs.
B. Information : knowledge to carry out policies esp.,
innovative or highly technical; monitoring the
compliance – demands information.
C. Authority : lack of authority, formal authority but
constrained in their exercised, inappropriate
authority.
D. Facilities : building, equipments, supplies or land,
budgetary limitations, intricate government
regulations, citizen opposition.
3. DISPOSITIONS
A. Effects Of Dispositions : attitude of
implementors – desire to carry out policies, exercise
considerable discretions, because their
independence from their nominal superiors who
formulate the policies per se and how they see the
policies affecting their organizational and personal
interests.
B. Staffing Of Bureaucracy : demands for
“balance” the nesessity of pleasing constituencies
and a desire not to alienate persons already
occupying public office; most bureucrats are
covered by civil service protection, are immune
from removal; transferring personne; to other
positions within the civil service.
C. Incentives : rewards, “sweeteners” in the form of
funds or lax regulations and tax breaks; negative
sanctions.
4. BUREAUCRATIC STRUCTURE
A. Standard Operating Procedures : developed
SOPs to handle the routine situations. SOPs are
often inappropriate for new policies and may cause
resistance to change, delay, waste or unwanted
actions.
B. Fragmentation : hindering coordination. The
obstacles to effective policy implementation are
exacerbated when the structure of government is
fragmented. In general, the more coordination that
is nacessary to implement a policy, the less the
chances of its succeding.
A Spectrum Of Policy Instruments
Low High